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THE 



PRINCIPLES 



OF 



LATIN GRAMMAR; 



COMPRISING THE SUBSTANCE OF THE MOST APPROVED 
GRAMMARS EXTANT, 



FOR THE 



USE OF COLLEGES AND ACADEMIES. 



BY THE REV. PETER BULLIONS, D.D. 

PROFESSOR OF LANGUAGES IN THE ALBANY ACADEMY J AUTHOR OF 
PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR j AND PRINCIPLES 
OF GREEK GRAMMAR. 



NEW-YORK: 

PUBLISHED BY COLLINS, KEESE & Co.: ROBINSON, 
PRATT & Co. 

ALBANY: 
OLIVER STEELE; W. C. LITTLE, 

1841. 






Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1841, by 

Rev. Peter Bullions, D. D. 

in the Clerk's Office of the Southern District of New- York. 



AP& 3 

nxy and 



Printed and Stereotyped by 
C Van Benthtjysen, 
Albany. 



PREFACE. 



In the study of any language, the foundation of success { 

must be laid in a thorough acquaintance with its principles. 
This being once attained, future progress becomes easy 
and rapid. To the student of language, therefore, a good 
Grammar, which must be his constant companion, is of all 
other books the most important, Such a work, to be really 
valuable, ought to be simple in its arrangement and style, iso 
as to be adapted to the capacity of youth, for whose use it is 
designed ; comprehensive, and accurate, so as to be a suffi- 
cient and certain guide in the most difficult as well as in easy 
cases ; and its principles and rules should be rendered fami- 
liar by numerous examples and exercises. 

The fundamental principles are nearly the same in all lan- 
guages. So far as Grammar is concerned, the difference lies 
chiefly in the minor details — in the forms and inflections of 
their words, and in the modes of expression peculiar to each, 
usually denominated idioms. It would seem, therefore, to 
be proper, in constructing Grammars for different languages, 
that the principles, so far as they are the same, should be ar- 
ranged in the same order, and expressed as nearly as possible 
in the same words. Where this is carefully done, the study 
of the Grammar of one language becomes an important aid in 
the study of another ; — an opportunity is afforded of seeing 
wherein they agree, and wherein they differ, and a profitable 
exercise is furnished in comparative or general grammar. 
But when a Latin Grammar is put into the hands of the stu- 
dent, differing widely in its arrangement or phraseology from 
the English Grammar which he had previously studied, and 
afterwards a Greek Grammar different from both, not only is 
the benefit derived from the analogy of the different langua- 
ges in a great measure lost, but the whole subject is made to 
appear intolerably intricate and mysterious. In order to re- 
medy this evil, I resolved, more than ten years ago, to pre- 
pare a series of grammars, English, Latin and Greek, ar- 
ranged in the same order, and expressed in as nearly the 



IV PREFACE. 

same words as the peculiarities of the languages would per* 
mit. In the prosecution of this purpose, a Greek and an 
English grammar have been already published, and the Latin, 
which completes the series, is now ready to follow them. 

The work here presented to the public, is upon the foun- 
dation of Adam's Latin Grammar, so long and so well 
known as a text book in this country. Since the first publi- 
cation of that excellent work, however, now more than fifty 
years ago, great advances have been made in the science of 
philology, both in Germany and Britain, and many improve- 
ments have been introduced in the mode of instruction, 
none of which appear in that work. The object of the pre- 
sent undertaking was, to combine with all that is excellent 
in the work of Adam, the many important results of sub- 
sequent labors in this field ; to supply its defects ; to bring 
the whole up to that point which the present state of classi- 
cal learning requires, and to give it such a form as to render 
it a suitable part of the series formerly projected. In accom- 
plishing this object, I have availed myself of every aid within 
my reach, and no pains has been spared to render this 
work as complete as possible in every part. My acknow- 
ledgements are due for the assistance derived from the excel- 
lent works of Grant, Crombie, Zumpt, Andrews & Stoddart, 
and many others, on the whole or on separate parts of this 
undertaking; and also for many hints kindly furnished by 
distinguished teachers in this country. With the exception 
of a few pages, the whole of this work has been written 
anew. The additions and improvements made in every part, 
it is impossible here to specify. The intelligent teacher 
will discover these, and judge of them for himself. In the 
typography of the work, neatness and accuracy have been 
aimed at, and, it is hoped, in a good degree attained. As in 
the other grammars, the rules and leading parts which should 
be first studied, are printed in larger type ; and the filling 
up of this outline is comprised in observations and notes un- 
der them, made easy of reference by the sections and num- 
bers prefixed. The whole is now committed, together with 
the rest of the series, to the judgment of an intelligent pub- 
lic, in the hope that something has been done to smooth the 
path of the learner in the successful prosecution of his stu- 
dies, and to subserve the interests both of English and Classi- 
cal literature in this country. 

Albany Academij, Aug. 20th, 1841. 



INDEX. 



A. 

PAGE 

Ablative, meaning of, 10 

governed by nouns, 225 

by adjectves. .. . 226 

by comp. degree, 227 

by verbs, 228 

by adverbs, 242 

by passive, verbs 234 

variously, 229 

Accidents of the noun, .... 8 

Accusative, meaning of . . . . 10 

governed by verbs 223 

by passive verbs,. .. . 234 

by prepositions. . ,243, 244 

variously, 225 

and genitive, 229 

and dative. 231 

and accusative 232 

and ablative 233 

Adjectives, 44 

of first and second decl. 45 

of third, 47 

irregular, 51 

exercises on, 53 

comparison of, 59 

Rules for,. 60 

irregular, &c 61 

derivation of 63 

numeral, 53 

cardinal, 54 

ordinal, 57 

construction of, 197 

Adverbs, signification of,. . 185 

derivation of, 186 

comparison of, 187 

construction of, 241 

eases governed by, .... 242 

Analysis or resolution, .... 269 

Apposition, 196 

Archaism, 266 

Arrangement, Latin, 266 



B. 

PAGE 

Beginners, directions for,. . 270 
C. 

Case, 9 

Synopsis of government of, 194 

Csesural pause, 293 

Cause, manner and instru- 
ment, 236 

Circumstances, construc- 
tion of, 235 

of limitation, 235 

of cause, manner, &c. 236 

of place, 237 

of time, 239 

of measure, 240 

of price, 241 

Concord of, 196 

Conjugation of, 100 

"First, 110 

irregular, 156 

Second, . . 119 

irregular, 157 

Third, 127 

irregular, 160 

Fourth, 136 

irregular, , 168 

1st Periphrastic, .... 152 

2d do. 153 

Conjunctions, , . f 192 

construction of, 264 

Consonants, 2 

Construing, Rules for, 271 

D. 

Dative, meaning of, 10 

governed by nouns, .... 215 

by adjectives, 215 

by verbs, 217 

byimpersonals,. . . 220 

by the pass, voice, 234 

variously, 222 



VI 



INDEX, 



PAGE 

Datives two, goVd by verbs, 222 
Declension, Rules for,. .. . 10, 11 

First, 12 

Greek nouns in, 13 

Exercises on. . . . 14 

Second, 15 

Exceptions in,. . 17 

Greek nouns in, 18 

Exercises on.. . . 18 

Third, .... 19 

Exercises on,. . . 23 

Genders in,.... 23 

Genitive of,. ... 24 

Exceptions in,. . 26 

Greek nouns in, 30 

Fourth, 30 

Exceptions in,. . 31 

Exercises on, ... 32 

Fifth, 32 

Exercises on,. . . 33 

Deponent verbs, 144 

irregular, 169 

Derivatives and compounds, 

quantity of, 289 

special rules for, 288 

E. 

Ellipsis, 265 

Enallage, 265 

Etymology, 6 

F. 

Feet, simple, 290 

compound, 291 

isochronous. ........ 291 

G. 

Gender of, 8 

Observations on, . . . 9 

Genitive, meaning of, 10 

gov'd by nouns, 207 

' by adjectives,. . . 210 

by verbs, 213 

by passives, .... 234 

variously, 214 

Gerunds and Supines, 99 

construction of, 260 

Gerundives, 98 

construction of ; . . . . . 262 
H. 

Hellenism, 266 

Hyperbaton, 266 

I. 

Increment ojf nouns, 268 

of the 2d decl.. . 279 



i>ag£ 

Increment of the 3d decl.. . 279 

of the plural, . . 280 

of the verb, 281 

Interjections, 191 

construction of, 225 

Irregular nouns, 34 

adjectives, 51 

comparison, 61 

Verbs, 170 

L. 

Letters, 1 

Limitation, circumstances of 235 

M. 
Marks and characters, ...;.' 2 

Measure, circumstances of. 241 

Metre, 293 

different kinds of, ... . 294 

Iambic, 294 

Trochaic, 295 

Anapaestic, 295 

Dactylic, 296 

Choriambic, 297 

Ionic, 298 

Metres, compound, 299 

Metres, combination of, in 

Horace, 301 

Metrical Key to Odes of 

Horace, 302 

Moods, 81 

Indie, tenses of, 85 

construction of, . . 246 

Subjunctive, tenses of, 89 

construction of, . . . 246 

with conjunctions, 247 

with relative, . . . 248 

used for imperative, 84 

Imperative, tenses of, 92 

construction of , . . . 253 

Infinitive, tenses of,. 93 

construction of, . . . 253 

without a subject, 254 

with a subject, . 256 

N. 

Negatives, construction of,. 241 

Nominative, meaning of,. . 10 

construction of, 203 

after the verb,. . . . 205 

Notation of numbers, 56 

Nouns, 7 

Accidents of, 8 

irregular, 34 

defective, 39 



INDEX. 



Vll 



PAGE. 

Nouns, redundant, ....... 40 

Syntax of,' 207 

increment of, 278 

Number, 8 

Numeral adjectives, 53 

O. 

Orthography, 1 

P. 

Parsing, directions for, .... 273 

Participles of, 97 

construction of, . . . 258 

case absolute, .... 259 

Parts of speech, 7 

Person, 65 

Person, and number of,. . . . 96 

Place, circumstances of, . . . 237 

Pleonasm, 265 

Prepositions of, 188 

in composition, 190 

inseparable, ao 191 

governing the accusa- 
tive,.. 243 
the ablative, 243 
the ace. and 

ablative, 244 
in composi- 
tion...... 244 

Price, circumstances of, ... . 241 

Pronouns, Personal, 64 

Adjective, 67 

Possessive, 67 

Demonstrative, 68 

Definite, 71 

Relative, 71 

construction of, . . . 200 

case of, 202 

Interrogative, 72 

Indefinite 73 

Patrial, . .' 73 

compound, 73 

Pronunciation 3 

Prosody, 276 

Figures of, 299 

Punctuation, , 3 

Q. 

Quantity, of, 276 

General rules for, . . . 276 

Special rules for, . . . 278 

of penult syllables, . 282 

of final syllables, ... 284 
R. 

Resolution or analysis, .... 261 

Examples of, 297 



PAGE. 

Scanning, 299 

Stanza, 301 

Supines of, . . . 99 

Construction of, .... 263 

Syllables, 5 

Syntax, \ 193 

General principles of, 193 

of cases, Synopsis of, 194 

Parts of, 196 

of the Noun, ....... 207 

of the verb, 245 

Figures of 265 

T. 

Tenses of, 84 

of the indicative, ... 85 

subjunctive,.. 89 

imperative, . . 92 

infinitive, .... 93 

participles,... 97 

Active how formed, . 102 

Passive, how formed, 104 

Connexion of, 245 

Terminations, table of,. . . . 11 

Time, circumstances of, ... 239 

V. 

Verb, Active, Neuter, 76, 77 

Different kinds of, . . 78 

Inflection of, 79 

Voices, of, 80 

Moods of, 81 

Tenses of, 84 

how formed, .... 102 

Regular, conjugation of, 100 

1st conj. Active, . 110 

Exercises on,. 113 

1st conj. Passive,. 114 

Exercises on,. 117 

2d conj. Active,.. 119 

Exercises on,. 122 

2d conj. Passive,. 122 

Exercises on,. 125 

3d conj. Active,. . 127 

Exercises on,. 131 

3d conj. Passive,. 131 

Exercises on,. 135 

4th conj. Active, . 136 

Exercises on,. 139 

4th conj. Passive, 140 

Exercises on,. 142 

Deponent, 1st conj.. . 144 

2d do .. 145 

3d do .. 147 



Vlll 



INDEX. 



PAGE. 

Verb, deponent, 4th do .. 148 

Exercises on, . 149 

Verbs, Neuter-passives, .... 150 

compound, . . . . 154 

irregular in pjerf. and 

Sup 155 

Irregular, 170 

Sum, 105 

Exercises on, 109 

Defective, 178 

Impersonal, 180 

Exercises on, . 182 

Redundant, 183 

Derivatives, 183 

Frequentatives, . 184 

Inceptives, 184 



PAGE, 

Verbs, Desideratives, 185 

Diminutives,... 185 
construction of, with 

Norn 203 

Special rules for, 204 

Syntax of, 245 

Increment of, 281 

Versification, 290 

Vocative, meaning of, 10 

construction of.. . 225 

Voice, 80 

Vowels, 1 

Vowel sounds, table of, ... . 4 

W. 

Words, 6 



LATIN GRAMMAR. 



Latin Grammar is the art of speaking or wri- 
ting the Latin language with propriety. 

It is divided into four parts ; namely, Orthogra- 
phy, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 



PART FIRST. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Orthography teaches the nature and power of 
letters, and the correct method of spelling words. 



§ 1. OF LETTERS. 

1. A Letter is a character representing a particular sound of the 
human voice. 

2. The Latin Alphabet consists of twenty-five letters, the same in 
name and form as the English, but without the w. 

Letters are divided into Vowels and Consonants. 

OF VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS. 

3. A Vowel is a letter which represents a simple sound. The 
vowels in Latin are six, viz : a, e, i, o, u, y. 

4. The union of two vowels in one sound is called a Diphthong. 
If the sound of both vowels be distinctly heard, it is called a Proper 
Diphthong ; if not, it is called an Improper Diphthong. 

5. The Proper Diphthongs in Latin are three, viz : au } eu } ei; 
as, audio, euge, hei. 

6. The Improper Diphthongs are two, viz : ae and oe. These are 
Often written together ; Thus, <e, ce ; and are pronounced as simple S. 

1 



2 ORTHOGRAPHY. § 1 

Obs. 1. Ai and oi are found as diphthongs in proper names from 
the Greek j as ; Maia, Troia. 

Obs. 2. After g, and q, and sometimes after 5, u before another vow- 
el in the same syllable does not form a diphthong with it, but is to be 
regarded as an appendage of the preceding consonant, having nearly 
the force of w, as in the English words, linguist, quick, persuade; 
thus lingua sanguis, qui, quce, quod, quum, suadeo, are pronounced as 
if written lingwa, sangwis, hwi, kwce, kwod, kwum, swadeo. 

Obs. 3. Two vowels standing together in different syllables, pro- 
nounced in quick succession, resemble the diphthong in sound, and, 
among the poets, are often run together into one syllable ; thus de-in, 
de-inde, pro-inde, &c. in two and three syllables are pronounced in 
one and two dein, deinde, proinde. Cui and huic, properly two sylla- 
bles are always contracted into one. So also, ui in such words from 
the Greek, as Harpuia. 

OF CONSONANTS. 

7. A Consonant is a letter that cannot be sounded without the 
help of a vowel as p, b, pronounced pe, be. 

8. Of the Consonants, eight are called mutes, viz. p, b, t, d, c, k, 
q, and g ; so called because they stop the passage of the voice, as b 
in sub. 

9. Four are liquids, viz. I, m, n, r, because they easily flow into 
other sounds. 

10. Three are double Consonants, viz. x, z, and j ; of these, x is 
equivalent to cs, gs, or ks ; z to ds, or ts and j to dg. 

Obs. 4. Though j is sounded by us as a double consonant, equiva- 
lent to dg, yet anciently it seems to have been more nearly allied to 
a vowel, and was represented by i ; thus, ejus pejus, &c. were writ- 
ten eius, peius, &c. In a similar manner, u and v were represented 
by the same letter, viz. v. 

11. The letter s represents a sibilant or hissing sound. The h is only 
an aspirate and denotes a rough breathing : In prosody, it is not re- 
garded as a consonant. 

12. The letters k, y, and z, are used only in words derived from 
the Greek. 

MARKS AND CHARACTERS 

13. The marks and characters used in Latin Grammar or in writing 
Latin, are the following : 

*-f Placed over a vowel shews it to be short. 



§2 



PRONUNCIATION. 



- Placed over a vowel shews it to be long. 

U Placed over a vowel shews it to be short or long. 

• • Is called Diceresis, and shows that the vowel over which, it is 
placed does not form a diphthong with the preceding vowel, but be- 
longs to a different syllable, as air pronounced a-er. 

•\ The circumflex shews that the syllable over which it stands has 
been contracted, and is consequently long as nuntidrunt for nuniiavc* 
runt ; dimicdssent for dimicavissent. 

* The grave accent is sometimes placed over particles and adverbs 
to distinguish them from other words consisting of the same letters ; 
as quod a. conjunction, " that/' to distinguish it from quod y a rela- 
tive, " which." 

1 Apostrophe, is written over the place of a vowel cut off from 
the end of a word as men 3 for mene. 

PUNCTUATION. 

14. The different divisions of a sentence are marked by certain 
characters called Points. 

The modern punctuation in Latin is the same as in English. The 
marks employed, are the Comma (,) j Semicolon (-,); Colon (:); Period 
(.); Interrogation (?); Exclamation (!). 

Obs. The only mark of punctuation used by the ancients, was a 
point, (.) which denoted pauses of a different length, according as it 
stood at the top, the middle, or the bottom of the line, that at the 
top denoting the shortest, and that at the bottom, the longest pause. 



§ 2. PRONUNCIATION * 

The pronunciation of the Latin language prevalent among 
the nations of continental Europe, and which is on many ac- 

* The ancient pronunciation of the Latin language cannot now be 
certainly ascertained. The tendency in all nations to assimilate its pro- 
nunciation to their own language, has been the cause of nearly as 
great a variety in the pronunciation of the Latin language, as there 
are different languages in modern times. Though this evil cannot 
perhaps be entirely remedied ; yet it certainly can be, to a great ex- 
tent, and as the Latin language is studied by the learned in all 
nations, it is an evil that surely ought to be remedied as far as pos- 
sible. 

Of all the varieties of pronunciation known to us, that of the Eng» 



4 PRONUNCIATION. § 2 

i 

counts preferable to the English, is exhibited in the follow- 
ing 

TABLE OF VOWEL AND DIPHTHONGAL SOUNDS. 



Short 


a 






like 


a 


in hat, 


as 


amat. 


Long 


a 






like 


a 


in father, 


as 


fama. 


Short 


e 






like 


e 


in met, 


as 


petere. 


Long 


e 






like 


py 


in they, 


as 


docere. 


Short 


1 






like 


i 


in sit, 


as 


constitit. 


Long 


I 






like 


i 


in machine, 


as 


linum. 


Short 


6 






like 





in not, 


as 


modo. 


Long 


o 






like 





in go, 


as 


dono. 


Short 


u 






like 


u 


in tub, 


as 


sub* 


Long 


u 






like 


u 


in full, 


as 


tuba. 




e y 


when it occurs is pronounced like 


i. 






ae 
oe 


or 

or 


82 
03 


Mike 


e y 


in they, 


as 


{ pennae. 
( poena. 




au 






like 


ou 


in our, 


as 


aurum. 




eu 






like 


eu 


in feud, 


as 


eurus. 




ei 






like 


i 


in ice, 


as 


hei. 



The consonants are pronounced generally as in the Eng- 
lish language. For the sound of u before another vowel, 
after g, q and sometimes s, see § 1. Obs. 2. 

lish is, in our opinion, decidedly the worst : not only because of its 
intricacy or want of simplicity, but because it is constantly conflicting 
with the settled quantity of the language. In English, every accented 
syllable is long : whenever, therefore, by the rules of English ac- 
centuation, the accent falls on a short syllable, in Latin it necessari- 
ly leads to a false quantity ; and to this, more than any thing else, per- 
haps, is to be attributed the acknowledged deficiency of classical 
scholars among us in this respect. If then, uniformity is desirable, 
and should be sought after, it is surely more reasonable that the Eng- 
lish should conform to a pronunciation already nearly uniform 
among all the nations of continental Europe, than that these nations 
should adopt the pronunciation of the English, one that can have 
scarcely any resemblance to the ancient, and is so hostile to the quan- 
tity of the language. 

The continental pronunciation, besides harmonizing better with the 
quantity of the Latin language, is recommended by its greater simpli- 
city. Each vowel has but one simple sound , distinct from every other, 
and the long and short sound of each vowel differ only in duration. 



§ 3 OF SYLLABLES.. 5 

§ 3. OF SYLLABLES. 

A Syllable is a distinct sound, forming the whole of a word, 
or so much of it as can be sounded at once. 

A word of one syllable is called a Monosyllable. 

A word of two syllables is called a Dissyllable. 

A word of three syllables is called a Trissyllable. 

A word of many syllables is called a Polysyllable. 

In a word of many syllables, the last is called the final syl- 
lable. The one next the last, is called the penult, and the 
syllable preceding that, is called the antepenult. 

Obs. The Figures affecting the orthography of words, are 
the following ; viz. 

1st* Prosthesis, prefixes a letter or syllable to a word ; as, gnatus 

for natus ; tetulit, for tulit. 
2d. Epenthesis, inserts a letter or syllable in the middle of a 

word : as navila for nauta ; Timolus, for Tmolus. 
3d. Paragoge, adds a letter or syllable to the end of a word, as 

amarier for amari, &c. 
4th. Aphceresis, cuts off a letter or syllable from the beginning of 

a word ; as brevisH or brevisi, for brevis est ; rhabo for arrhabo. 
5th. Syncope takes a letter or syllable from the middle of a word ; 

as, or actum for oraculum ; amdrim for amavZrim ; deum for de- 

drum. 
6th. Apocope, takes a letter or syllable from the end of a word ; as 

Antoni for Jlntonii ; men' for mene ; die for dice. 
7th. Antithesis, substitutes one letter for another ; as, olli for 

Mi; vult, vultis for volt, voltis, contractions for volit, volitis. 
8th. Metathesis, changes the order of letters in a word j as, pistris 

for pristis. 
9th. Tmesis, separates the parts of a compound word by inserting 

another word between them ; as, quce me cunque vocant terr&j 

for qucecunque me, &c. 
10th. Anastrophe, inverts the order of words ) as dare circum, for 

circumdare. 



i* 



OF WORDS. § 4 

PART SECOND. 



ETYMOLOGY. 

Etymology treats of the different sorts of 
words, their various modifications, and their de- 
rivations. 



§ 4. OF WORDS. 

Words are certain articulate sounds used by 
common consent as signs of our ideas. 

1. In respect of Formation, words are either 
Primitive or Derivative, Simple or Compound. 

A Primitive word is one that comes from no other ] as, 
puer, bonus, pater. 

A Derivative word is one that is derived from another 
word ; as, pueritia, bonitas, paternus. 

A Simple word is one that is not combined with any other 
word ; as, pius, doceo, verto. 

A Compound word is one made up of two or more simple 
words ; as, impius, dedoceo, animadverto. 

2. In respect of Form, words are either Declin- 
able or Indeclinable. 

A Declinable word is one which undergoes certain changes 
of form or termination to express the different relations of 
gender, number, case, person, &c. usually termed, in Gram- 
mar, Accidents. 

An Indeclinable word is one that undergoes no change of 
form. 

3. In respect of Signification and Use, words 
are divided into different classes, called Parts of 
Speech. 



§5 3 6. PARTS OF SPEECH OP THE NOUN. 7 

§ 5. PARTS OF SPEECH. 

The Parts of Speech in the Latin language are 
eight 5 viz. 

1. Noun or Substantive, Adjective, Pronoun, 
Verb, declined. 

2. Adverb, Preposition, Interjection, Conjunc- 
tion, undeclined. 

Obs. 1. The Participle which is regarded by some as a 
distinct part of speech, properly belongs to, and forms a part 
of the verb. 



§ 6. OF THE NOUN. 

A Noun or Substantive, is the name of any per- 
son, place or thing. They are of two kinds, 
Proper and Common. 

1. A Proper Noun is the name applied to an 
individual; as, Cicero, Aprilis, Roma. 

Among these may be included, 

Patronymics, or those which express one's parentage or family j as, 
Priamides, the son of Priam. 

Gentile, or P atrial, which denote one's country y as, Romanics, GaU 
lus, &c. 

Obs. A proper noun applied to more than one becomes a common 
noun; as, duod8cim Ccesares, the twelve Ceesars. 

2. A Common Noun is a name applied to all 
things of the same sort; as, vir, a man; domus, 
a house ; liber, a book. 

Under this class may be ranged, 

1. Collective nouns, or nouns of multitude, which signify many in 
the singular number •> as, populus, a people ; exercitus, an army. 

2. Abstract nouns, or the names of qualities ; as bonitas } good* 
ness j dulcedo, sweetness. 



8 ACCIDENTS OF THE NOUN. § 7 

3. Diminutives, or nouns which express a diminution in the signifi- 
cation of the noun from which they are derived j as libellus, a little 
book, from liber, a book. 

4. Amplificative nouns, or those which denote an increase in the 
signification of the nouns from which they are derived 3 as, capito, 
a person having a large head ; from caput, the head. 



§ 7. ACCIDENTS OF THE NOUN. 

To the Latin noun belong Gender, Number, and 
Case. 

1. Gender means the distinction of nouns with 
regard to Sex. 

There are three Genders, the Masculine, Femi- 
nine, and Neuter. 

Of some nouns the gender is determined by their signifi* 
cation; — of others, by their termination* 

The Masculine gender belongs to all nouns which denote 
the male sex. 

The Feminine gender belongs to all nouns which denote 
the female sex. 

2. Number is that property of a noun by 
which it expresses one, or more than one. 

Latin nouns have two numbers, the Singular 
and the Plural. The Singular denotes one ; the 
Plural, more than one. 

The Neuter gender belongs to all nouns which are neither 
masculine nor feminine. 

Nouns which denote both males and females are said to be 
of the Common gender, i. e. they are both masculine and fem- 
inine. 

Nouns denoting things without sex and which are some- 
times of one gender, and sometimes of another, are said to be 
Doubtful. 



§ 7 ACCIDENTS OP THE NOUN. 9 

The gender of nouns not determined by their signification 
is usually to be ascertained by their termination, as will be 
noticed under each declension. 

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON GENDER. 

Obs. 1. Nouns denoting brute animals, especially those 
whose sex is not easily discerned or but rarely attended to, 
commonly follow the gender of their termination. Such are 
the names of wild beasts, birds, fishes, insects, &c. 

Obs. 2. A proper name often follows the gender of the 
general noun under which it is comprehended ; thus, 

The names of months, winds, rivers and mountains, are 
masculine, because mensis y verities, jluvius, mons, are mascu- 
line. 

The names of countries, towns, trees, and ships, are femi- 
nine, because terra, urbs, arbor, navis, are feminine. 

To these, however, there are many exceptions. 

Obs. 3. Some nouns are masculine and feminine both in 
sense and grammatical construction ; as adolescens, a young 
man or woman ; Affinis, a relation by marriage ; dux, a 
leader. 

Some are masculine or feminine in sense, but masculine 
only in grammatical construction, i.e. they have an adjective 
word always in the masculine gender ; such as, Artzfex, an 
artist ; fur, a thief; senex, an old person, &c. 

Some are masculine or feminine in sense, but feminine on- 
ly in grammatical construction; i. e. they have an adjective 
word always in the feminine gender ; such as, copiai, forces, 
troops ; custodies, guards ; operm, labourers, &c. 

Obs. 4. Some nouns denoting persons, are neuter, both in 
termination and construction ; as, Acroama, a jester ; auxi- 
Ha, auxilliary troops ; mancipium, or servilium, a slave. 

Obs. 5. Some nouns in the plural form denote but one; as, 
Athena, Athens ; others signify one or more ; as, nuptial, a 
marriage or marriages. 

3. Case is the state or condition of a noun with 
respect to the other words in a sentence. 



10 OF DECLENSION. § 8 

Latin nouns have six cases, the Nominative, 
Genitive, Dative. Accusative, Vocative, and Ablative. 

1st. The Nominative case denotes the name of an object 
simply, or as that of which something is affirmed. 

2d. The Genitive connects with the name of an object, 
the idea of origin or possession. 

3d. The Dative represents the thing named, as that to 
which something is added, or to, or for which, some- 
thing is said or done. 

4th. The Accusative represents the thing named, as affect- 
ed or acted upon by something else, and also, the ob- 
ject to which something tends or relates. 

5th. The Vocative is used when persons and things are 
addressed. 

6th. The Ablative represents the thing named as that 
from which something is separated or taken, or as 
that by or with which something is done, or exists. 

Obs. 6. All the cases, except the nominative, are called 05- 
lique cases. 

Obs. 7. The signs of the oblique cases, or the prepositions 
by which they are usually rendered into English, are the fol- 
lowing, viz. Genitive, of; Dative, to or for ; Vocative, O ; 
Ablative, with, from, in, by, &c. as in the following scheme* 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Nom. a king, 


Nom. kings, 


Gen. of a king, 


Gen. of kings, 


Dat. to or for a king, 


Dat. to or for kings, 


Ace. a king, 


Ace. kings, 


Voc. king, 


Voc. kings, 


Ab\.with,from, in or by a king. 


Abl. with, from, in, by kings. 



§ 8. OF DECLENSION. 

Declension is the mode of changing the termi- 
nations of nouns, &c. 

In Latin there are five declensions, called the 
First, Second, Third, Fourth and Fifth. 



§8 



OF DECLENSION. 



11 



The declensions are distinguished from each 
other by the termination of the genitive singu- 
lar; thus, 

The first declension has the genitive singular in -ce r 
The second " " in -i % 

The third " " in -is, 

The fourth " " in -us, 

The fifth " " in -ei. 

GENERAL RULES FOR THE DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 

1. Nouns of the neuter gender have the Nomin- 
ative, Accusative and Vocative alike in both 
numbers, and these cases in the plural end al- 
ways in a. 

2. The Vocative for the most part in the singu- 
lar, and always in the plural, is like the Nomina- 
tive, 

3. The Dative and Ablative plural are alike. 

4. Proper names for the most part want the 
plural. 

Obs. 1. The difference between these declensions will be 
seen at one view in the following 







TA.BLE OF 


TERMINATIONS. 










Singular. 








I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 




V 






M. N. 


M. N. 


M. 


N. 




£fo?n. 


-a, 


-us, -er, -um, 





-us, 


-u, 


-es, 


Gen. 


-ae, 


"h 


-is, 


-fis, 


-u, 


-ei*, 


Vat. 


-se, 


-o 3 


-h 


-Ul, 


-% 


-ei*, 


Ace. 


-um, 


-um, -um, 


-em, 


-um, 


-u, 


-em 


Voc. 


-a, 


-e, -er, -um, 


— 


-us, 


-u, 


-es, 


All. 


-a. 


-o. 


-e. or -l. 


-u. 


-u. 


-e\ 



12 



THE FIRST DECLENSION. 



§9 



Plural. 

III. IV. V. 

M. N. 

, -us, -ua, -es, 

-uura, -£rum, 

-lbus, or -iibus, -ebus, 
-us, -ua, -es, 

-us, -ua, -es, 

-ibus, or -iibus. (-ebus. 

Obs. 2. The terminations of the Nominative singular in 
the third declension being numerous, are omitted in the ta- 
ble. The terminations of the Gen. Dat. and Abl., Neuter 
are the same as the Masculine. 





I. 


IL 

M. N. 


Nom. 


-ae, 


-I, -a, 


Gen. 


-arum, 


-orum, 


Dat. 


-is, 


-is, 


Ace. 


-as, 


-os, -a, 


Voc. 


-ae, 


-I, -a, 


AIL 


-is. 


-is. 



M. 


N. 


-es, 


—a, —ia, 


-um, • 


•ium, 


-lbus, 




-es, 


—a, — ia, 


-es, 


—a, — ia, 


-lbus. 





§ 9. THE FIRST DECLENSION. 

The First Declension has four terminations ; 
two feminine, a, e, and two masculine, as, es. 
Latin nouns end only in a: the rest are Greek. 





TERMINATIONS. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Nom. -a, 


Nom. -ae, 


Gen. -as, 


Gen. -arum 


Dat. -ae, 


Dat. -is, 


Ace. -am, 


Ace. -as, 


Voc. -a, 


Voc. -ae, 


Abl. -a. 


Abl. -is. 



Penna, a pen. Fern. 



Singular. 
N* penn-a, a pen, 

G. penn-ae, of a pen, 

D. penn-ae, to, or for a pen, 
Ac. penn-am, a pen, 

V. penn-a, O pen, 

Ab. penn-a, with a pen. 



Plural. 
N. penn-ae, pens, 

G. penn-arum, of pens, 

D. penn-is, to, or for pens, 
Ac. penn-as, pens, 

V. penn-ae, O pens, 

Ab. penn-is, with pens. 



I 9 FIRST DECLENSION. 13 

Note. — The words declined as examples in this and the other declen- 
sions; are not divided into syllables, and the hyphen (-) is never to be 
regarded as a division of syllables, but only as separating the root 
from the termination, as penn-a, agr-i, &c. 

In like manner decline, 

Ara, an altar; Sella, a seat; Tuba, a trumpet; Litera, a letter. 

Additional Examples. 

Ala, a wing. Faba, a bean. Ripa, a bank. 

Area, a chest. Hora, an hour. Turba, a crowd. 

Casa, a cottage. Mensa, a table. Unda, a wave. 

Causa, a cause. Norma, a rule. Virga, « rod. 

EXCEPTIONS IN GENDER. 

1. Nouns in a, denoting appellations of men, as pincernaa 
butler; names of rivers, (§ 6, Obs. 2,) likewise Hadria, the 
Hadriatic ; cometa, a comet ; planeta, a planet ; and some- 
times talpa, a mole ; and da?na, a fallow-deer, are masculine, 
Pascha, the passover, is neuter. 

EXCEPTIONS IN CASE. 

2. The Genitive Singular. — The ancient Latins sometimes 
formed the genitive in -di ; as aula, a hall ; Gen. auldi ; — « 
sometimes in -as, as mater-familias, the mother of a fami- 
ly, (See § 18, 9.) 

3. The Accusative Singular. — Greek nouns in #, have 
sometimes -an, in the accusative sing. 5 as, Maian, Ossan. 

4. The Dative and Ablative Plural. — The following nouns 
have -abus instead of -is, in the Dative and Ablative plural, 
to distinguish them from masculine nouns in -us, of the se- 
cond declension, viz. 

Dea, a goddess. Filia, a daughter. 

Equa, a mare. Mula, a she mule. 

GREEK NOUNS. 

Greek nouns in -as, -es, and -e, are declined as 
follows, in the singular number : — 



14 FIRST DECLENSION. § 9 

JEneas, JEneas. Anchises, Anchises. Penelope, Penelope. 

N. JEne-as, N. Anchis-es, N. Penelop e, 

G. JEne-ae, G. Anchis-ae, G. Penelop-es, 

D. iEne-ae, D. Anchis-ae, D. Penelop-e, 

Ac. iEne-am, or -an, Ac. Anchis-en, Ac. Penelop-en, 

V. iEne-a, V. Anchis-e, V. Penelop-e, 

Ab. iEne-a. Ab. Anchis-e. Ab. Ponelop-e. 

Like JEneas, decline Boreas, the north wind ; Midas, a king of 
Phrygia. 

Like Anchises, decline Alcides, a name of Hercules ; cometes, a 
comet ', P elides, Achilles, the son of Peleus. 

Like Penelope, decline Circe, a famous sorceress ; Cybtte, the 
mother of the gods ; Epitome, an abridgment ; Grammatice, gram- 
mar. 

Obs. 1. When the plural of proper names occurs, it is 
like the plural of penna ; thus, Atridce^ Atridarum, &c. 

Obs. 2. Nouns in -es have sometimes a in the Vocative, 
more rarely a. Nouns in -stes have -sta. They also some- 
times have the Accusative in -em, and the Ablative in -a. 

EXERCISES ON THE FIRST DECLENSION.* 

* 

1. Tell the case and number of the following words and 
translate them accordingly : — Penna, pennam, pennarum, 
pennis, penna, pennas ; — aram, aris, sellas, sella, sella, sel- 
larum 5 tubis, tubam, tubae, litera, literarum, pennis, oras, 
tubaa, Uteris ; — Penelopes, Penelopen, iEnean, Anchises, 
Anchisae, iEnea. 

2. Translate the folloioing words into Latin : — The pen, 
of pens, with pens, from a pen, in a pen, by pens ; from the 
altars ; of a trumpet ; with letters ; a seat ; O altar ; the seat of 
Penelope 5 of iEneas ; with Anchises ; a trumpet ; from the 
altar; to a seat; with a pen; of the altars; &c. ad libitum. 

* Words in the above exercises. Proper names usually to be trans- 
lated in the nominative case. 

Penna, a pen. Tuba, a trumpet. 

Ara, an altar. Litera, a letter. 

Sella, a seat. 



§10 



SECOND DECLENSION. 



15 



§ 10. THE SECOND DECLENSION. 

The Second Declension has seven terminations ; 
namely, 

Five masculine, -er, -ir, -ur, -us, and -os. 

Two Neuter, -», and -on. 

Of these terminations, -os, and -on, are Greek; 
the rest are Latin. 





TERMINATIONS. 






Masculine. 




Neuter. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


N. -er, -us. 


N. -i, 


N. -urn, 




N. -a, 


G. -i, 


G. -orum, 


G. -i, 




£?. -orum. 


D. -o, 


D. -is, 


D. -o, 




D. -is, 


Ac. -urn, 


Ac. -os, 


-4c. -urn. 




Ac. -a, 


V. -e, or like nom 


. V. -i, 


F. -um, 




T. -a, 


Ab. -o. 


-4£. -is. 


Ab. -o. 




Ab. -is. 



JRe#i. Nouns in -er, -ir, and -wr, add -£in the genitive j but -w$ and 
-urn are changed into -i. 

Puer, a boy, Masc. 



Plural. 
N. puer-i, hoys, 

G. puer-orum, of boys, 

D. puer-is, to, or for boys, 



Singular^ 
N. puer, a boy, 

G. puer-i, of a boy, 

D. puer-o, to, or for a boy, 
Ac. puer-um, a boy, 

V. puer, O boy, 

Ab. puer-o. with, fyc. a boy. 

Thus decline, 

Gener, a son-in-law ; Liber, Backus, Mulciber, Vulcan ; 
Vir, a Man. 

Rule 1. But most nouns in er, lose e, in the 
genitive; as, 

Liber, a book, Masc. 



Ac. puer-os, 
V. puer-i, 
Ab. puer-is. 



boys, 
O boys, 
with, fyc. boys. 



Singular. 
N. liber, 
G. libr-i, 
D. libr-o, 
Ac. libr-um, 
V. liber, 
Ab. Ubr-o, 



Plural. 
N. libr-i, 
G. libr-orum, 
D. libr-is, 
Ac. libr-os, 
V. libr-i, 
Ab. libr-is. 



Thus decline. 
Ager, afield. 

Aper, a wild boar. 

Culter, a knife. 

Magister, a master. 
Auster, the south wind. 
Cancer, a crab. 



16 



SECOND DECLENSION. 



§10 



Rule 2. Nouns in -us, have the Vocative in -e 5 
as ventus, vente. 





Dominus, a lord-, Masc. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


Thus 


decline.* 


N. domin-us, 


IV. domin-i, 


Ventus, 


the wind. 


G. domin-i, 


G. domin-orum, 


cuius, 


the eye, 


D. domin-o, 


D. domin-is, 


Annus, 


a year. 


Ac. domin-um, 


Ac. domin-os, 


Fluvius, 


a river. 


V. domin-e, 


V. domin-i, 


Hortus, 


a garden 


Ab. domin-o. 


Ab. domin-is. 


Radius, 


a ray. 


Regnum, a kingdom 


, Neut. 




Singula!'. 


Plural. 


Thus 


decline. 


IV. regn-uxn, 


IV. regn-a, 


Antrum, 


a cave. 


G. regn-i, 


G. regn-orum, 


A strum, 


a star. 


D. regn-o, 


D. regn-is, 


Donum, 


a gift. 


Ac. regn-um, 


Ac. regn-a, 


Jugum, 


a yoke. 


V. regn-um. 


V. regn-a, 


Saxum, 


a stone. 


Ab. regn-o. 


Ab. regn-is. 


Pomum, 


an apple. 




Promiscuous Exa? 


nples. 




Arbiter, a judge. 


Folium, a leaf. 


Socer, a 


father-in-law. 


Belium. war. 


Gladius. a sword 


. Telum, 


a dart. 


Cadus, a cask. 


Lupus, a wolf. 


Torus, 


a couch. 


Cervus, a stag. 


Murus, a wall. 


Tectum, 


the roof. 


Collum, the neck 


Nidus. a nest. 


Truncus 


the trunk. 


Equus. a horse. 


Ovum, an egg. 


Velum, 


a sail. 


Faber, an artist. Praelium, a battle 


Vadum, 


a ford. 


Ficus, f. a Jig tree. Ramus, a branc 


h. Votum, 


a vow. 



Exc. 



EXCEPTIONS IN GENDER. 
1. Of nouns ending in -us, the names of plants, 



towns, islands and precious stones, with few exceptions, are 
feminine, § 6, Obs. 2. 

Exc. 2. Besides these, only four words originally Latin, 
are feminine ; viz. alvus, the belly ; coins, the distaff; hu- 
mus, the ground ; and v annus, a winnowing fan. 

Exc. 3. Vines, juice, poison, and pelagus, the sea, are 
neuter. Vulgus, the common people, is both masculine and 
neuter. Pampinus, a vine branch, is rarely feminine, com- 
monly masculine. 



I 10 SECOND DECLENSION, 17 

Exc. 4. Many Greek nouns in -us, are feminine, especial- 
ly compounds of *j oSos ; as, methodus, periodus, &c. So also, 
biblus, papyrus, diphthongus, paragraphus, diametrus, peri- 
metrus* 

EXCEPTIONS IN DECLENSION. 

Exc. 5. The Vocative Singular. 1st. Proper 
names in ius have the Vocative in i; as Geor- 
gius, V. Georgi ; except Pius which has Pie. 

In like manner, films, a son, has fill, and genius, one's 
guardian angel, has gent. But other nouns in -ius , and such 
epithets as Delius, Saturnius, &c. not considered as proper 
names, have ie. 

2d. Deus has deus in the vocative, and in the plural more 
frequently dii and diis, (sometimes contracted di and dis,) 
than dei and dels. Mens, my, has the vocative mi, sometimes 
meus. 

Obs. The poets sometimes make the vocative of nouns in 
-us, like the nominative; rarely so in prose. Sometimes, 
also, they change nouns in -er into -us, as Evander or Evan- 
drus ; in the vocative, Evander or Evandre. 

Exc. 6. The Genitive Singular. — The genitive of singu- 
lar nouns in ius and ium, in the purest age of Latin was 
formed in i, not ii, both in prose and verse, asfili, Tulli, in- 
genii they are now frequently written with a circumflex; 
thus, ^2, Tulli, ingeni, forfilii, Tullii, &c. 

Exc. 7. The Genitive Plural. — Some nouns especially 
those which denote value, measure, weight, commonly form 
the genitive plural in -um instead of -drum ; as, nummum, 
sesterti&m, &c. The same form occurs in other words, espe- 
cially in poetry ; as, detim, Danatim, &c; also, divom is 
used for divorum. 

Deus, a god, is thus declined : 



Singular. 




Plural. 




N. De-us, 


JV. 


De-i, or Di-i, 


Contr. Di, 


G. De-i, 


G. 


De-6rum, 




D. De-o, 


D. 


De-is, or Di-is, 


Dis, 


Ac. De-um, 


Ac. 


De-os, 




V. De-us, 


V. 


De-i, or Di-i, 


" Di, 


Ab. De-o. 


Ab. 


De-is, or Di-is, 

2* 


" Dis. 



18 



SECOND DECLENSION. 



§10 



GREEK NOUNS. 

Greek nouns in -os and -on, are often changed into -us and 
-um; as Alpheos, Alpheus; Ilion, Ilium. Those in -?*os, into 
er; as, Alexandros, Alexander. When thus changed, thev are 
declined like Latin nouns of the same termination. Oxner- 
wise 

Greek nouns are thus declined. 

Singular. 
N. Del-os, Androge-os, 
G. Del-i, Androge-o, or -i, 
D. Del-o, Androge-o, 
Ac* Del-on, Androge-o,or-on, 
V. Del-e, Androge-os, 
Ab. Del-o. Androge-o. 



fi 


lingular. 


Plural. 


N. 


barbit-on, 


barbit-a, 


G. 


barbit-i, 


barbit-on, 


D. 


barbit-o, 


barbit-is, 


Ac. 


barbit-on, 


barbit-a, 


V. 


barbit-on, 


barbit-a, 


Ab. 


barbit-o. 


barbit-is. 



Some nouns in -os, anciently had the genitive in u; as Menandm. 
Panthu occurs in Virgil as the vocative of Panthus. Proper names 
in -eus are declined like dominus, but have the vocative in -ews, and 
sometimes contract the genitive singular as Orphei, Orphei, or Orphi. 
When -eu is a diphthong, they are of the third declension. Other 
nouns, also, are sometimes of the third declension j as. Androgeo % 
j&ndrogeonis . 



EXERCISES ON THE SECOND DECLENSION.* 

Tell the case and number of the following tvords % and 
translate them accordingly : — Pueri, dominorum, domino, 
puero, puerum, pueros, libri, libris, librum, libro, dominis, do- 
mine, regnum, regna, regnorum — ventus, vento, ventum — 
oculus, oculorum — filii, fili, filiis, filios. 

Translate the following words into Latin : — To a boy. 
from a boy, O boy, O boys, of boys, books, of bool s, for books, 
in books, with a book, a lord, from a lord, to a 1( id, of lords, 
the lords, of a kingdom, the kingdom, to the kingdoms, to 
the winds of heaven, lords of the soil, &c. ad lihitum. 



* Words in the above Exercises 
Puer, a boy. 



Dominus. 
Liber, 



a lord, 
a book. 



Regnum, a kingdom. 
Ventus, the wind. 
Coelum, heaven. 



Solum, the soil. 
Oculus, the eye. 
Filius, a son. 



§ 11 THIRD DECLENSION. \9 

§ 11. THE THIRD DECENSION. 

Nouns of the third declension are very numer- 
ous; they are of all genders; and generally in- 
crease one syllable in the oblique cases. * Its final 
letters are thirteen, a, e, i, o, y, c, d, I, n, r, s, t, 
x* Of these a, i, y, are peculiar to Greek nouns. 

TERMINATIONS. 



Masculine and Feminine. 




Neuter. 


Singular. 


Plural 


Singular. 


Plural. 


N. -, 


N. -es, 


N. - 


N. -a, 


G. -is, 


G. -urn, or -ium, 


G. -is, ' 


G. -um,0r-ium, 


D. -i, 


D. -lbus, 


D. -i 


D. -lbus, 


Ac. -em, 


Ac. -es, 


Ac. — , 


Ac. -a, 


v- -, 


V. -es, 


V. -, 


V. -a, 



Ab. -e, or i. Ab. -lbus. 



Ab. -e, or i. Ab. -lbus. 



GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 

1. In this declension, the Nominative and Vocative, of 
Masculine and Feminine nouns are always alike. As the final 
syllables of the nominative are very numerous, a dash ( — ) 
supplies their place in the above table. Neuter nouns come 
under the general rule, § 8. 1. 

2. All nouns of this declension are declined by annexing 
the above case-endings, or terminations to the root. 

S. The Root consists of all that stands before -is in the 
genitive, and remains unchanged throughout. Hence, when 
the genitive case is found, the cases after that are alike in all 
nouns, except as noticed hereafter. 

4. The genitive of nouns in this declension, will be most 
easily learned from the Dictionary, as all rules that can be 
given are rendered nearly useless by the number of excep- 
tions under them. 

5. In the following examples, the root and terminations are 
separated by a hyphen (-) in order to shew more distinctly 
the regularity of the declension. This being mentioned, it 

* A noun is said to increase when it has more syllables in any case 
than it has in the nominative. 



20 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



§12 



will occasion no difficulty, though standing as it often does, 
in the middle of a syllable ; as, pa tr-is. 



§ 12. EXAMPLES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

1. Sermo, u speech, Masc. 
Singular, Plural. Thus decline. 



N. Sermo, 

G. Sermon-is, 

D. Sermon-i, 

Ac. Sermon-em, 

V. Sermo, 

Ab. Sermon-e. 



N. Sermon-es, 
G. Sermon-um, 
D. Sermon-ibus, 
Ac. Sermon-es, 
V. Sermon-es, 
Ab. Sermon-ibus, 



Carbo, a coal. 
Leo, a lion, 
Pavo, a peacock. 
Praedo, a robber. 



2. Color, a color, Masc. 



Singular. 

N. color, 

G. color-is, 

D. color-i, 

Ac. color-em, 

V. color, 

Ab. color-e. 



N. 

G. 

D. 

Ac. 

V. 

Ab. 



Plural. 
color-es, 
color-um, 
color-ibus, 
color-es, 
color-es, 
color-ibus. 



Thus decline. 



Honor, honor. 
Lector, a reader. 
Pastor, a shepherd. 



3. Miles, a soldier, Masc. 



Singular. 
N. miles, 
milit-is, 
milit-i, 
milit-em, 
miles, 



G. 
D. 
Ac 
V. 



Ab. milit-e. 



Plural. 
N. milit-es, 
G. milit-um, 
D. milit-ibus, 
Ac. milit-es, 
V. milit-es, 
Ab. milit-ibus. 



Thus decline. 

Comes, a companion. 
Limes, a limit. 
Trames, a path. 



Rule 1 . Nouns in -es and -is, not increasing in 
the genitive singular, have -turn in the genitive 
plural. 

Except canis, a dog; panis, bread ; vat is, a prophet; juvenis, a 
young man; and volucris, a bird. 



THIRD DECLENSION 




: 


4. Rupes, a rock, Fern. 




Plural. 


Thus decline. 


N. rup-es, 
G. rup-ium, 
D. rup-ibus, 
Ac. rup-es, 


Apis, 
Classis, 
Moles, 
Nubes, 


a bee. 
a fleet, 
a mass, 
a cloud. 


V. rup-es, | 
Ab. rup-ibus. 


Vitis, 
Vulpes, 


a vine, 
a fox. 



21 



§ 12 



Singular. 
N. rup-es, 
G. rup-is, 
D. rup-i, 
Ac. rup-em, 
V. rup-es, 
Ab. rup-e. 



Rule 2. Nouns of one syllable in -as and -is, 
and also, in s and x, after a consonant have -turn 
in the genitive plural ; as 5 

5. Pars, a part, Fern. 

Thus decline. 
Calax, -cis, the heel. 
Vas,-dis, a surety. 
Lis,-tis, alaw-suit. 
Arx,-cis, a citadel. 
Urbs,-is, a city. 



Singular. 
N. pars, 
G. part-is, 
D. part-i, 
Ac. part-em 
V. pars, 
Ab. part-e. 



Plural. 
N. part-es, 
G. part-ium, 
D. part-ibus, 
Ac. part-es, 
V. part-es, 
Ab. part-ibus. 



Pons, -tis, a bridge. 



Rule 3. Nouns of more than one syllable in 
-as and -ns, have -urn, and sometimes -turn in the 
genitive plural. 

6. Parens, a parent, Masc. or Fern. 



Singular. 
N. parens, 
G. parent-is, 
D. parent-i, 
Ac. parent-em, 
V. parens, 
Ab. parent-e. 



Plural, 
N. parent-e s, 
G. parent-um, -ium. 
D. parent-ibus, 
Ac. parent-es, 
V. parent-es, 
Ab. parent-ibus. 



Thus decline. 
Rudens, a cable 
Cliens, 
Serpens 



a client, 
a serpent. 



Obs. 1. Masculine and Feminine nouns which have -ium in 
the genitive plural, have sometimes -is, or -eis, as well as 
-es in the Nominative, Accusative and Vocative plural ; as, 
partes, partmm. Norn. Ace. and Voc. partes, parteis, or 
partis* 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



§12 



Singult 



7. Opus, a work, Neut. § 8. R. 1. 



lav. 
JV. opus, 
G. oper-is, 
D. oper-i. 
Ac. opus, 
V. opus, 
Ab. oper-e. 



Plural, 
JV. oper-a, 
G. oper-um, 
D. oper-ibus, 
Ac. oper-a, 
V. ofl|r-a, 
Ab. oper-ibus. 



Thus decline. 

Funus, a funeral. 

Latus, the side. 

Corpus-oris, the body. 
Caput, capitis, the head. 
Iter, itineris, a journey. 



Rule 4. Nouns in -e and -at, and -#r, have -z in 
the Ablative singular; -turn in the Genitive plu- 
ral ; and 4a in the Nominative, Accusative and 
Vocative plural. 

Exc. Proper names in -e have -e in the Ablative ; as, Prceneste % 
Neut. a town in Italy ,• Ablative, Prceneste. 

8. Sedile, a seat, Neut. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Thus decline. 


JV. sedil-e, 


N. sedil-ia, 


Aneile, 


a shield. 


G. sedil-is, 


G. sedil-ium, 


Mantlle, 


a towel. 


D. sedil-i, 


D. sedll-ibus, 


Mare, 


the sea. 


Ac. sedll-e, 


Ac. sedil-ia, 


Rete, 


a net. 


V. sedil-e, 


V. sedil-ia, 


Cubile, 


a couch. 


Ab. sedil-i. 


Ab. sedll-ibus. 








9. Animal, an animal, Neut. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


Thus decline. 


JV. animal, 


JV. animal-ia, 






G. animal-is, 


G. animal-ium, 


Cubital, 


a cushion. 


D. animal-i, 


D. animal- lbus, 


Calcar, 


a spur. 


Ac. animal, 


Ac. animal-ia, 


Vectigal 


, a tax. 


V. animal, 


V. animal-ia 






Ab. animal-i. 


Ab. animal-ibus. 








ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES. 




Acer, -eris, n. 


a maple tree. Homo, -inis, c. 


a man 


iEtas, -atis,f. 


age. Imago, -inis, f. 


an image. 


Arbor, -<5ris, f. 


a tree. Iter, itineris, n. 


a journey. 


Aries, -etis, m. 


a ram. Lac, -tis, n. 


milk. 


Ars, -tis, f. 


an art. Lapis 


, -Idis, m. 


a stone. 



§13 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



23 



Canon, -onis, m. 


a rule. 


Laus, -dis, f. 


praise. 


Career, -eris, m. 


a prison. 


Lex, -legis, f. 


a law. 


Cardo, -mis, m. 


a hinge. 


Monile, -is, f. 


a necklace. 


Carmen, -mis, n. 


a poem. 


Mons, -tis, m. 


a mountain. 


Cervix, -icis, f. 


the neck. 


Munus, -eris, n. 


a gift. 


Codex, -icis, m. 


a hook. 


Nox, noctis, f. 


night. 


Consul, -ulis, m. 


a consul. 


Onus, -eris, n. 


a burden. 


Cor, cordis, n. 


the heart. 


Ovile, -is, n. 


a sheep fold. 


Crux, -ucis, f. 


a cross. 


Pecten, -mis, m. 


a comb. 


Cubile, -is, n. 


a couch. 


Regio, -onis, f. 


a region. 


Bens, -tis, m. 


a tooth. 


Salar, aris, m. 


a trout. 


Dos, -do tis, f. 


a dowry. 


Serpens, -tis, c. 


a serpent. 


Femur, -oris, n. 


the thigh. 


Toral,-alis, n. 


a bed cover. 


Formido, -mis, f. 


fear. 


Trabs, -abis, f. 


a beam. 


Fornax, -acis, f. 


a furnace. 


Turris, -is, f. 


a tower. 


Frater, -tris, m. 


a brother. 


Uter, utris, m. 


a bottle. 


Fur, furis, c. 


a thief. 


Virgo, -inis, f. 


a virgin. 


Genus, -eris, n. 


a kind. 


Voluptas, -atis, f. 


pleasure. 


Hseres, -edis, c. 


an heir. 


Vulnus, -eris, n. 


a wound. 



EXERCISES ON THE EXAMPLES. 

Tell the case and number of the folloiving ivords and 
translate them accordingly : — Sermonis, sermonum, colori- 
bus, colori, colore, colores, militum, militis, militem, militi- 
bus, rupis,rupe, rupium, rupi, rupibus, partium, partes, parte, 
partis, parenti, parente, parentum, parentes, parentis, opera, 
opere, operi, operibus, operum, sedilis, sedilia, sedilibus, 
sedili, sedilium, animalia, animalis, animali. 

Translate the following words into Latin: — Of a rock, 
of rocks, from a soldier, with soldiers, to a seat, seats, of 
seats, the works, of a soldier, to the color, of a rock, a seat, 
for a parent, the speech, of a parent, to a soldier, the color, 
of an animal, from rocks, to rocks, &c. ad libitum. 



§ 13. GENDER OF NOUNS IN THE THIRD DE- 
CLENSION. 

GENERAL RULES. 

1 . Nouns in n> and o, er, or and os, are gener- 
ally masculine. 



24 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



§14 



2. Nouns in do, go, and to; as, es, and is; 
s, after a consonant, and x are for the most part 
feminine. 

3. Nouns in a, e, and i; c, I, and t; ar, ur, 
and as, are almost always neuter. 

The exceptions to these rules, especially to the lirst and se- 
cond are many, and will be most effectually learned by prac- 
tice. 



§ 14. THE GENITIVE SINGULAR. 

In order to decline a noun of the third declension, the 
genitive case must first be known. For this, no rules can be 
given of much practical utility, owing to the number of ex- 
ceptions under them. The most common formations of this, 
case are exhibited in the following table : 





NOEQ 


. 


Gen. 


1 


a, 




-atis. 


2 


e, 




-is, 


3 


h 




-itis, 


4 


y, 




-yos, 


5 


o, 




-onis, 


6 


do, 


(fern.) 


-inis, 


7 


go, 


(fern.) 


-inis, 


8 


c, d, 1 


-is, 


9 


n> 




-is, 


10 


en, 


(neut.) 


•inis, 


n 


*, 




-is, 


12 


as. 




-atis, 


13 


es, 




-is, 


14 


is, 




-is, 


15 


OS, 




-otis, 


16 


us, 




-eris, 


17 


ys; 




-yis, yos 


18 


bs. 




-bis, 


19 


ps, 




-Pis, 


20 


ut, 




-itis, 


21 


ns, 




-tis, 


22 


rs, 




-tis, 


23 


x. 




-cis, 



Nom. 


Gen. 


diadema, 


diadem-atis. 


mare, 


maris. 


hydromeli, 


hydromel-itis. 


moly, 


moly- os. 


sermo, 


sermonis. 


formido, 


formid-inis. 


imago, 


imag-Inis. 


animal. 


animal-is. 


canon, 


canon-is. 


carmen 


carra-mis. 


anser, 


anser-is. 


aetas, 


ae talis. 


sedes, 


sedis. 


vitis, 


vitis. 


nepos. 


nepotis. 


latus, 


lateris. 


chelys. 


chely-is. -os. 


trabs, 


trabis. 


stirps. 


stripis. 


caput. 


capitis. 


parens, 


parentis. 


pars, 


partis. 


vox , 


vocis. 



§ 14 THIRD DECLENSION. 25 

In the above table, to the terminations opposite the numbers 1, 2, 
3, 4, 7, 10, and 20, there are no exceptions in the formation of the 
genitive. To the terminations opposite the other numbers, the fol- 
lowing exceptions may be noticed ; viz. 

5. Apollo, cardo, homo, margo, nemo, turbo, have -inis, Anio, and 
nerio, change, -o into -enis ; and caro has carnis. 

6. Dido, -us or -onis; Unedo, unedonis. 

8. Fel. fellis ; lac, lactis. 

9. Chameleon, Charon, Laomedon, add -Us. 

11. Accipiter, campester, mater, pater, Silvester, uter, change -tei 
into -tris:—Acer, alacer, volucer have -oris: — Celeber, December 
imber, November, October, Saluber, September, change -ber into -bris:-- 
Ebur, jecur, robur, have oris ; cor has cordis ; Jupiter, Jo vis ; far ^ 
f arris ; hepar, hep&tis. 

12. Areas, lampas, Pallas, a goddess vas, a surety, have -ddis :< — 
Gigas, Pallas, a man's name, have -antis ; As has asm ; mas, maris ; 
#as, a vessel, vasis. 

13. Abies, aries, hebes, indiges, inter pretes, paries, per pes, prcepes, 
seges,teges, and teres, have His: — Chr ernes* Crates, Cres, Dares * 
Laches, locuples, mansues, mendes, quies, tapes, Thales* have His : — 
Ales, antistes, dives, eques, limes, merges, miles, palmes, sospes, termes, 
tudes, and veles have -itis : — hares and merces have edis : — Obses, 
presses, and derivatives of sedes, have idis ;— Ceres and pubes* have 
•Uris: — *^es has ceris, prces, prcedis ; and pes, pedis. 

Note. — Those marked thus * are also regular. 

14. Capis, cassis, cuspis, graphis, lapis, Paris, pixis, promulsis, 
Themis, tyrannis, have idis: — Jaspis, has idis or idos : — Crenis, glis, 
mouldiness ; Nesis, and Phosphis, have -idis : — Dis, lis, Quiris, Sam- 
nis, have itis ; and Charis has Charitis : — Cucumis, vomis f andpulvis, 
have -Zris : — Salmis has -inis -, sanguis, -inis ; semis, semissis ; glis, a 
dormouse, gliris; hceresis, -Zos, and-ws ; metropolis, -Zos and -ios ; and 
Opois, Pyrois, Simois, have -entis. 

15. Flos, glos, honos-or, labos-or, mos, os, the mouth, and ros, have 
-oris: — Arbos, has arboris ; 6os, bovis ; custos, custodis ; os, a bone, 
ossis ; and the Greek nouns Heros, Minos, Thos, and TVos, have 
-ois. 

16. Corpus, decus, dedecus,faznus,frigus, lepus, littus ,'nemus , pectus, 
pecus, penus, pignus, stercus, tempus, and tergus, have -oris : — Crus, 
jus, mus, plus, rus, tellus, and thus have -uris : — Juventus, salus, se- 
nectus, servitus, virtus, have -Otis: — Incus, subscus, and palus, have 

3 



26 THIRD DECLENSION. § 15 

adis :—fraus, has fraud is ; laus, laudis ; ligus-ur, has liguris ; $ws, 
sms, Oedipus } and Tripus, have -tfcfa's; Orpheus, Orpheos ; and Opus 
and Trapezus, have -writs. 

17. Chlamys and Pelamys, have -2/dos, or -ydis ; Phorcys and Tra- 
ces have -y/ios, or -ynis. 

18. Calebs has ccelibis. 

19. Adeps, forceps, manceps, municeps, particeps, princeps, change 
-eps into Spis : — Anceps, biceps, and prceceps change ~eps into -ipitis;— 
JLuceps has aucupis ; Cinyps, Cinyphis; and Gryps, Gryphis. 

21. Glans, libripens, nefrens, change -5 into -dis ; — 7e?i.s has euntis ; 
Tiryns, Tirynthis. 

22. Concors and miser icors, change -s into -<2is. 

23. Allobrox, aquilex, Biturix, conjunx , frux , grex, harpax, larynx, 
lex, phalanx, Phryx, Sphynx, strix, syrinx, change -x into -gis : — Du- 
plex, index, judex, pollex, simplex, change -ex into -icis :—Astyanax, 
Bibrax, Hipponax, Hylax, change -ax, into -actis : — Nix has nivis ; 
nox, noctis ; remex, remigis ; senex, senis, and -icis; onyx, onychis ; 
and suppellex, suppellectilis. 



§ 15. EXCEPTIONS IN DECLENSION. 
THE ACCUSATIVE SINGULAR. 

1. The following nouns in -is have -im in the Accusative. 

Amussis, f.a measure, rule. Ravis, f. a hoarseness . 

Buris, f. the beam of a plough. Sinapis, f. mustard. 

Can a bis, f. hemp. Sitis, f. thirst, 

Cucumis. m. a ciwumber. Tussis, f. a cough. 

Gummis, f. gum. Vis. f. strength. 
Mephitis, f. a strong smell. 

2. Proper names in -is have -im in the Accusative ) viz. 
Names of cities and other places ; as, Bilbilis^ f. a city of 

Spain ; Syrtis, f. a quicksand on the coast of Africa. 

Names of rivers ; as Tiberis, m. the Tiber ; Bcetis, m. 
the Guadalquiver. 

Names of Gods ; as, A?iubis, m. Osiris, m. Egyptian 
Deities. 
Note. — These nonns have sometimes -in in the Accusative. 



§ 15 THIRD DECLENSION. 27 

3. The following nouns in -is have -e?n, or -im in the Ac- 
cusative 5 viz. 

Aqualis, f. a waterpot. Puppis, f. the stern of a ship. 

Clavis, f. a key. Restis, f. a rope. 

Cutis, f. the skin. Securis, f. an axe. 

Febris, f. a fever. Sementis, f. a sowing. 

Lens, f. lentiles. Strigilis, f. a curry-comb. 

Navis, f. a ship. Turris, f. a tower. 
Pelvis, f. a bason. 

Note 1. — Puppis, restis, securis and turris have generally -im, the 
others commonly -67?*, The oldest Latin writers form the accusative 
of some other nouns, in -im ; as, avis, auris. 

4. Nouns which have been adopted from the Greek, some- 
times retain a in the Accusative ; as, heros, m. a hero, heroa; 
Tros, m. a Trojan, Troa. See No. 13. 

Note 2. — This form is seldom used by the best prose writers and is 
chiefly confined to proper names, except in -air, m. the air ; cether f 
m. the sky : delphin, m. a dolphin ; Pan, m. the god of the shep- 
herds, whfch commonly have aera, cethZra, delphina, and Pana. 

Obs. 1. Many Greek nouns in -es have -en, as well as -m 
in the Accusative ; as, Ewphraten, Oresten, Pyladen. 

ABLATIVE SINGULAR. 

5. Nouns in -is which have -im in the Accusative, 
have -i in the Ablative ; as, sitis, sitim, siti. 

But cannabis, Bcetis, sindpis and Tigris, have -e or -t . 

6. Nouns in -is which have -em or -im in the 
Accusative, have -e or •* in the Ablative; as, 
clavis, clave or clavi. 

Note 3. But cutis, and restis have -e only,- securis, sementis } and 
strigilis, have seldom -e. 

7. The following nouns which have -em in the Accusative, 
have -e or -i in the Ablative : viz. 

Amnis, m. a river. Occiput, n the hind-head. 

Anguis, m. and f. a snake. Orbis, m. a circle. 

Avis. f. a bird. Pars, f. a part. 



28 THIRD DECLENSION. § 15 

Civis, c. a citizen. Postis, m. a door post, 

Classis, f. a fleet. Pugil, c. a pugilist. 

Finis, m. and f. an end. Rus, n. the country. 

Fustis, m. a staff. Sors, f. a lot. 

Ignis, m. afire. Suppellex, f. furniture. 

Imber, m. a shower. Unguis, m. a nail. 

Mugil, m. a mullet. Vectis, m.alever. 

Note 4. Finis, mugil , occiput, pugil, rus, Suppellex, and vectis, have 
-e or -i indifferently ; the others have much more frequently -e. 

Obs. 2. Names of Towns, when they denote the place in 
or at which any thing is done, take -e, or -?'; as Carthagine, 
or Carthagini. 

Obs. 3. Canalis, m. or f. a water pipe, has canali only. 
Likewise names of months in -is, or -er; as Aprtlis, Sep- 
tember, Aprtli, Septembri; and those nouns in -is, which 
were originally adjectives ; as, cedzlis, afftnis, bipennis, fa- 
miliaris, natalis, rivalis, sodalis, volucris, fyc. This class 
of nouns also admits -e in the Ablative : Rudis 7 f. a rod, and 
juvenis, c. a youth, have -e only. 

8. The following Neuter Nouns in -al and -ar have -e in 
the Ablative : viz. 

Baccar, lady's glove. Jubar, a sunbeam. Sal. salt. 
Far. corn, Nectar, nectar. 

Obs. 4. Par, when used as a substantive, forms the Abla- 
tive Singular, and Genitive Plural, in the same way as the 
Adjective. § 21. Rule 2. 

GENITIVE PLURAL 

[See Rules, § 12.] 

9. The following Nouns have -ium in the Genitive Plural : 

Caro, f. flesh. Fauce, f. the jaws. Nox, f. night. 

Cohors, f. a cohort. Lar, m. a household god. Os, n. a bone. 
Cor, n. the heart. Linter, m. or f. a boat. Quiris, m. a Roman. 
Cos, f. a whetstone. Mus, m. a mouse. Samnis, m. a Samnite. 

Dos, f. a dowry. Nix, f. snow. Uter, m. a bottle. 

Obs. 5. The compounds of uncia and as have likewise -ium; as 
Septunx, m. seven ounces, Septuncium ; Sextans, m. two ounces, Sex- 
t ant ium. 



§ 15 THIRD DECLENSION, 29 

Obs. 6. Apis, f. a bee, has apum and apium; opis, f. power, has 
opum only. Gryps, m. a griffon j lynx, m. or f. a lynx j and Sphinx, 
f. the Sphinx , have -wm. Eos, c. gen. bovis, an ox has bourn. 

DATIVE PLURAL. 

10. Bos c. an ox has bbbus or bubus in the Dative Plural j and 
sws, c. a sow, has suibus, or subus. Nouns in -ma, have ~tis as well 
as -tibus ; as poema, n. a poem, poematibus or poemdtis. The Greek 
termination -si or -sin is very uncommon in prose, and is admissible 
only in words purely Greek. See No. 13. 

ACCUSATIVE PLURAL. 

11. The form of the Accusative Plural in -as is admissible in all 
words which have that termination in Greek, but is rarely used in 
Prose. Livy, however, frequently uses Macedonas -, and Allobrogas 
is found in Caesar. 

12. Some nouns of the third Declension are somewhat pe- 
culiar in different cases, as follows: 



Jupiter. 


Vis 


.force, 


power, Fern, 


Singular. 


Singular. 


Plural* 


JV. Jupiter, 


N. vis, 




N. vir-es, 


G. Jov-is, 


G. vis, 




G. vir-ium^ 


D. J6v-i, 


D. -, 




D. vir-ibus, 


Ac* J6v-em, 


Ac. vim, 




Ac. vir-es, 


V. Jupiter, 


V. vis, 




V. vir-es, 


Ab. Jov-e. 


Ab. vi. 




Ab. vir-ibus* 



Bos, an ox, or cow, Masc. or Fern. 

Singular. PluraL 

N. bos, JV. bov-es, 

G. bov-is, G. bourn, 

D. bov-i, D. bobus, or bubus,* 

J.c.bov-em, Ac. bov-es, 

V. bos, V. bov-es, 

Ab. bov-e. Ab. bobus, or bubus. 

# Contracted for bovtbus. 
3* 



30 


FOURTH DECLENSION. 


§16 


12. GREEK NOUNS THROUGH ALL THE CASES. 


Nom. 


Gen. J) at. 


Ace. 


Voc. Abh 


S. Lamp-as, 


-adis, or ados, -adi, 


-adem, or -ada, 


-as, -ade. 


PL Lamp-ades 


, -adum, -adibus, 


-ades, or adas, 


-ades, -adibus. 


S. Tro-as, 


-adis, or -ados, -adi, 


-adem, or ada, 


-as, -ade. 




( -adibus, 




( -adibus, 


PL Tro-ades, 


-adum, 1 -asi, or 


-ades, or -adas, 


-ades, 1 -asi, or 




( -asin, 




( -asin. 


S. Tros, 


Trois, Troi, 


Troem, or Troa, 


Tros, Troe. 


S. Phyll-is, 


-idis, or -idos, -idi, 


-idem, or -ida, 


-i, or -is,-ide. 


S. Par-is, 


-idis, or -idos, -idi, 


-idem, -im, or -in,-i, -ide. 


S. Chlam-ys, 


-ydis, or -ydos, -ydi, 


-ydem, or -ida, 


-ys, -yde. 


S. Cap-ys, 


-yis, or -yos, -yi, 


-ym, or -yn, 


-y, -ye. 


S. Haeres-is, 


-is, or -eos, -i, 


-im, or -in, 


-i, -i. 


S. Orph-eus, 


-eos, or-e'i, or ei, -ei, or -ei : 


-ea, 


-eu, -eo. 


S. Did-o, 


-us, or onis, -o, or -oni 


,-o, or -onem. 


-o, -o, or -one. 



§ 16. THE FOURTH DECLENSION. 

The Fourth Declension has two terminations, 
-us and -u. Nouns in -us are Masculine. Those 
in-u are Neuter, and indeclinable in the singular 
number. 

TERMINATIONS. 



Singular. 


Plural. 




Masc. 


Masc. 




Neut. 


N. -us, 


N. -us, 




-ua, 


G. -us, 


G. -uum, 




-uum, 


D. -ui, 


D. -ibus, 




-ibus, 


Ac. -um, 


Ac. -us. 




-ua, 


V. -us, 


V. -us, 




-ua, 


Ab. -u. 


Ab. -ibus. 




-ibus. 




Fructus, /rweY, 


Masc 




Singular. 


Plural. 




Thus decline. 


N. fruct-us, 


N. fruct-us, 






G. fruct-us, 


G. fruct-uum, 




Casus, a fall. 


D. fruct-ui, 


D. fruct-ibus, 




Cur r us, a char* 


Ac. fruct-um, 


Ac. fruct-us, 




Fluctus, a wave 


V. fruct-us, 


V. fruct-us, 




Gradus, a step. 


Ab. fruct-u. 


Ab. fruct-ibus. 







§16 



FOURTH DECLENSION. 



31 



Singular. 
N. cornu, 
G. cornu, 
D. cornu, 
Ac. cornu, 
V. cornu, 
Ah. cornu. 



Cornu, a horn, Neut 

Plural. 
N. corn-ua, 
G. corn-uum, 
D. corn-ibus, 
Ac. corn-ua, 
V. corn-ua, 
Ah. corn-ibus. 



Thus decline. 

Gelu, ice. 
Genu, the knee. 
Tonitru, thunder. 
Veru, a spit. 



ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES. 



Flatus , a blast. 
Ictus, a stroke. 
Manus, f. the hand. 



Motus, a motion. 
Nutus, a nod. 
Passus, a pace. 



Ritus, a ceremony. 
Sinus, a bosom. 
Situs, a situation. 



EXCEPTIONS IN GENDER. 

Exc. 1. The following nouns are feminine : viz. 
Acus, a needle. Ficus, a fig. Portfcus, a gallery. 

Anus, an old woman. Manus, the hand. Specus, a den* 

Domus, a home. Penus,* a storehouse. Tribus, a tribe. 

* Sometimes masculine. 



EXCEPTIONS IN DECLENSION. 

Exc. 2. The Genitive and Dative Singular : — In some wri- 
ters the Genitive Singular is occasionally found in -uis ; as, 
ejus anuis causa, for anus. Terence. In others the Dative 
is sometimes found in -u ; as, resistere impetii, for impetui ; 
Esse usu sihi, for usui Cic. 

Exc. 3. The Genitive^ — and the Dative and Ablative \Plu* 
ral : — The Genitive Plural is sometimes contracted ; as, cur- 
rilm, for curruum. The following nouns have -uhus instead 
of thus in the Dative and Ablative Plural : viz. 



Acus, a needle. 
Arcus, a bow. 
Artus, a joint. 
Genu,* the knee. 



Lacus, a lake. Specus, a den. 

Partus, a birth. Tribus, a tribe. 

Portus,* a harbour. Veru,* a spit. 

1 These words have also -ibus. 



Ohs. 1. Nouns of this declension seem to have belonged 
anciently to the third, and were declined like grus, gruis, 
thus, fructus, fructu-is,f ructu-i, &c. So that all the cases 



32 FIFTH DECLENSION. § 17 

except the Dative Singular and the Genitive Plural may be 
regarded as contracted forms of that declension. 

Obs. 2. Several nouns of this declension are in whole or 
in part of the second also, such as, Ficus, penus, domus and 
several others. Capricornus, m. and the compounds of ma- 
nus, as, unimanus, Centimanus, &c, are always of the se- 
cond. 

Obs. 3. Jesus the name of the Saviour has -urn in the Ac- 
cusative, and -u in all the other cases. 

Domus, a house*, Fern, is thus declined. 

Singular. Plural. 

N. dom-us, JV. dom-us, 

G. dom-us, or -i, G. dom-orum, or -uum, 

D. dom-ui, or -o, D. dom-Tbus, 

Ac. dom-um, Ac. dom-us, or -os, 

V. dom-us, V. dom-us, 

Ah. dom-o. Ab. dom-ibus. 

Note. — Domus in the Genitive, signifies of a house. Domi is used 
only to signify at home, or of home. 

EXERCISES ON THE FOURTH DECLENSION 

1. Tell the gender, number and case of the following 
words from the paradigm and additional examples, pp. 30, 
and 31, and translate. 

Fructus, fructus, fructuum, flatibus, flatu, manuum, mani- 
bus, nutu, passuum, passibus, passus, cornua, tonitribus, ve- 
rubus, casu, currum, currui, fluctu, fluctibus, cornibus, &c. 

2. Translate the following words into Latin and tell the 
gender, number and case in which the words are put: viz. 

Of fruit, to fruit, with the hand, for the hand, of a horn, 
to a horn, with a horn, from horns, horns, the horns, of the 
chariot, for a chariot, of chariots, from the waves, for the 
waves, from his hands, with a nod, &c. 

§ 17. THE FIFTH DECLENSION. 

The Fifth Declension has but one termination, 
namely, -es; as, res a thing ; dies a day. 



§17 



FIFTH DECLENSION. 



33 



All nouns of this declension are Feminine except dies, a 
day, which is masculine or feminine in the singular, and al- 
ways masculine in the plural ; and meridies, the mid-day, 
which is masculine in the singular and wants the plural. 

Dies, a day. 







TERMINATIONS. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Sing. 


Plu. 


N. di-es, 


N. di-es, 


-es, 


-es, 


G. di-ei, 


G. di-erum, 


-ei 


-erum, 


D. di-ei, 


D. di-ebus, 


-ei, 


-ebus. 


Ac. di-em, 


Ac. di-es, 


-em, 


^es, 


V. di-es 


F. di-es, 


-es, 


-es, 


Ah. di-e. 


Ah. di-ebus. 


-e. 


-ebus. 



Obs. 1. Dies and res are the only nouns of the Fifth De- 
clension which have the Plural complete ; acies, effigies, fa- 
des, series, species and spes, in the Plural have only the Nomi- 
native, Accusative, and Vocative; the others have no plural. 



Singular. 
N. faci-es, 
G. faci-ei, 
D. faci-ei, 
Ac. faci-em, 
F. faci-es, 
Ah. faci-e. 



Facies, the face. Fern. 

Plural. 
N. faci-es, 

G. 

D. — 
Ac. faci-es, 
F. faci-es. 
Ah. 



Thus decline. 

Effigies, an image. 
Series, a series. 
Spes, ei', hope. 
Acies, an army. 



Exc. The poets sometimes make the Genitive, and more 
rarely the Dative singular in -e; &$, fide, for fidei. Ov. Re- 
quies, is both of the third and fifth declension. 

EXERCISES ON THE FIFTH DECLENSION, 

1 . Tell the gender, number and case of the following nouns, 
and translate: — Diei, spei aciem, acie, faciei, facies, diebus, 
dierum, dies, faciem, effigiem, series, rerum, diebus, diem, &e. 
ad libitum. 

2. Translate the following English tvords into Latin and 



34 IRREGULAR NOUNS. § 18 

tell the gender, &c : — The image, of the face, the things, of 
the army ; the hope, of the army, a series, of days, to a day, 
from the days, with the army, to an image, with faith, &c. 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES ON ALL THE DECLENSIONS. 

Tell the gender, declension, case and number of the following 
nouns, in the order here mentioned, and give the translation j thus, 
Pennd, A noun, fern, first j in the Ablative singular, with a pen.* 

Via, pueri, genero, ventis, puerorum, sermo, sedile, sedili, 
sedilium, sedilibus, fructuum, fructus, sellee, tubam, regno, 
templi, dies, rerum, capite, capitum, itineribus, partis, pa- 
rentibus, rupe, urbis, vulpem, vulpibus, parente, sedilia, die, 
colorem, militis, militibus, sermones, honore, manus, manus, 
manibus, faciem, ala, tubam, mensarum, bellum, dominorum, 
templum, puerorum. bella, bello, &c. 

Translate the following into Latin, and state the gender, declension, 
case and number, always following the same order : thus, " Of boys." 
puerorum, Noun, masc. second; in the Genitive plural.* 

From the way, to a speech, with a part, of a seat, of seats, 
to the wind, a kingdom, to a boy, of boys, with lords, foxes, 
of tables, to parents, with seats, of soldiers, from the head, 
heads, to a part, with a trumpet, in a time, of w r ar, the time, 
of peace, in a journey, to a seat, of a rock, to sons-in-law, 
with fruit, of the face, with a seat, to tables, of rocks, &c. 



§ 18. IRREGULAR NOUNS. 

Irregular Nouns are divided into Variable, Defective and 
Redundant. 

* Words used in the above exercises ; the declension is indicated 
by the genitive according to § 8. 

Ala, -33, a wing. Iter, itineris, a way. Sedile, -is, a seat. 

Bellum, -i, war. Manus, -us, a hand. Sella, -se, a seat. 

Caput, -Itis, the head. Mensa, -ae, a table. Sermo, -onis, a speech. 
Color, -is, color. Miles, -His, a soldier. Templum, -i, a temple. 

Dies, -ei, a day. Parens, -tis, a parent. Tempus, -oris, time. 

Dominus, -i, a lord. Pars, -tis, a part. Tuba, -as, a trumpet. 

Facies, -ei, the face. Puer, -i, a boy. Urbs, -is, a city. ^ 

Fructus, -us, fruit. Regnum, -i, akingdcm.Ventois, -i, the wind. 
Gener, -i, a son-in-law. "Res, rei, a thing. Via, -ae, a way. 

Honor, -is, honor. Rupes, -is, a rock. Vulpes, -is, a fox. 



§ 18 IRREGULAR NOUNS. 35 

I. VARIABLE NOUNS, 

Nouns are variable either in Gender or Declension, or in 
both. Nouns varying in gender are called, Heterogeneous. 
Those which vary in declension are called, Heteroclites. 

Heterogeneous Nouns. 

1. Masculine in the Singular, and Neuter in the Plural ; as, 

Avernus, a hill in Campania, Pangaeus, a promontory in Thrace. 

Dindymus, a hill in Phrygia. Tasnarus^ a promontory in Laconia. 

Ismarus, a hill in Thrace. Tartarus, hell. 

iVTaenalus, a hill in Arcadia. Taygetus, a hill in Laconia. 

2. Masc. in the Singular, Masc. and Neut. in the Plural ; 
as, Jocus, a jest, PI. -i and -a. Locus, a place, PI. -i and -<z. 

3. Feminine in the Singular, Neuter in the Plural; as, 
Carbasus, a sail, PL -a. Pergamus, the citadel of Troy, PL -a. 

4. Neuter in the Singular, Masculine in the Plural; as 
Argos, Argos, a city in Greece, PL -i. Elysium, the Ely- 
sian fields, PL +i, Coelum, heaven, PL -i. 

Note 1. — Argos, in the Singular, is used only in the Norn, and Ace. 

5. Neut. in the Sing, Masc. and Neut. in the Plural; as, 
Frenum, a bridle, PL ~i and -# . Rastrum, a rake, PL -i, and -a. 

6. Neuter in the Singular, Feminine in the Plural ; as, 
Balneum, a bath, PL -cb and -a. Epulum, a banquet. PL 
-#. Delictum, a delight, PL -<#. 

Heteroclites. 

7. Vas, vasts, n. a vessel of the 3d declension, Plur. vasa, 
vasorum, of the 2d. Jugerum, jugeri, n, an acre, of the 2d 
declension, Plur. jugera, jugerum, of the 3d. Jugeris and 
jugere from jugus, are also found in the Singular, See 
Num.11. 

8. Some Greek Proper nouns are declined both by the se- 
cond Declension and the third, as follows : 



Nom. Gen. Dat. 


Ace. 




Voc. 


Abi. 




«**•■*{:&; :£ 


-eum- or 
-ea, 


-eon 


-euj 


-eo; 


2d Bed. 
; 3d Decl. 


cEdipus, ^:^ dis % t 


•um, 
-odem. 




-u, 


-ode 


2d Decl. 
; 3d Decl. 


Achilleus, -ei 5 -eo, 







-eu, 


-eo; 


2d Dec}. 


Achilles, -lis, or leos, -li, 


-lem, or 


den. 


-les,or-]i 


s, -le: 


3d Decl. 



36 IRREGULAR NOUNS. § 18 

DOUBLE NOUNS 

9. To this class may be referred a few double nouns, the 
parts of which are of different declensions. When the two no- 
minatives combine, both parts are declined like a substan tive 
and adjective : thus, 

Kespublica, a commonwealth^ Fern. 
Singular. Plural. 

N. respublica, N. respublicse, 

G. reipublicae, G. rerumpublicarum, 

D. reipublicae, D. rebuspublicis, 

Ac. rempublicam. Ac. respublicas, 

V. respublica. V. respublicas, 

Ah. republica. Ah. rebuspublicis. 

Jusjurandum, a?i oath, Neut. 

Singular. Plural. 

N. jusjurandum, N. jurajuranda, 

G. jurisjurandi, G. 



D. jurijurando, D. 

Ac. jusjurandum, Ac. jurajuranda, 

V. jusjurandum, V. jurajuranda. 



^.jurejurando. Ah. « 

When the one part is a nominative, and the other an ob- 
lique case, the part in the nominative only is declined ; as, 

Materfamilias, a mistress of a family, Fern. 
Singular. 
N. materfamilias, 
G. matrisfamilias, 
D. matrifamilias, 
Ac. matremfamilias, 
V. materfamilias, 
Ah. matrefamilias. 

Note 2. — Familias is an old form of the genitive, and is governed 
hy mater. So Paterfamilias. 

II. DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 
Nouns are defective in Cases or Number. 



§ 18 IRREGULAR NOUNS. 37 

Obs, 1. Indeclinable nouns, i. e. nouns which have the 
same form in all cases, though commonly ranked under this 
class, do not properly belong to it, because none of the cases 
are wanting. They are such as pondo, n. a pound or pounds ] 
semis, n. the half; mille, a thousand; cape, an onion; opus, 
need or needful, used both as a substantive and an adjective. 
To these may be added any word used as a noun ; as, velle, 
in the phrase, suuin velle, (for sua voluntas,) his own inclina- 
tion : Proper names adopted from a foreign language ; as? 
Elizabet, Jerusalem, &c. 

I. Nouns defective in particular cases. 

10. The following nouns are used only in one case. # 

Nom. Fauce, f. the jaws. 

Inquies, f. want of rest. Ingratiis, f. in spite of. 

Abl. Injussu, m. without order. 

Admonitu, m. an admonition. Inter diu, by day. 

Ambage, f. a winding. Natu, m. by birth. 

Casse, m.'ft net. Noctu, f. by night. 

Diu, by day. Promptu, m. in readiness. 
Ergo, 07i account of. 

Obs. 2. Many verbal nouns of the Fourth Declension are 
used only in the Ablative Singular ; as, accitu, promptu, &c. 
Dicis, f. and nauci, n. are used only in the Gen. Sing. ; as, 
diets gratia, for forms* sake; res nauci, a thing of no value. 
Inficias, f. and inert a, f. or incitas, have only the Ace. Plur \ 
as, inficias ire, to deny; ad incitas reductus, reduced to ex- 
tremities. Ambages, easses and fauces, are regularly declin- 
ed in the Plural. 

11. The following nouns are used only in two cases. 

Nom. and Ace. Gen. and Abl. 

Astu, n. the city of Athens. Compedis, -e, f. a fetter. 

Inferia3,-as,f. sacrifices to the dead. Impetis, -e, m. force. 

Instar, n. likeness, bigness. Jugeris, -e, n. an acre. 

Suppetias, -as, f. help. Spontis, -e, f. of one' 's own accord. 

Nom. and Abl. Verberis,-e, n. a stripe. 

Astus, -u, m. cunning. Repetundarum, -is, f. extortion. 
Vesper, -e, or -i, m. the evening. 

* Nouns which are used only in one case are ealled Monoptotes; 
in two cases, Diptotes ; in three cases, Triptotes / in four cases, Te- 
traptotes ; in five cases, Pentaptotes. 

4 



38 IRREGULAR NOUNS. § 18 

Obs. 3. Compedes, jug era and verbera are regularly de- 
clined in the Plural. Astus is found in the Nom. and Acc 9 
Plur. 

12. The following nouns are used only in three Cases. 

Nom. Ace. and Voc. Nom. Ace. and Abl. 

Cacoethes, n. a bad custom. Lues. f. a plague. 

Also other Greek nouns in -es. Tilpos. n. a heroic poem. 
Cete, n. whales. Fas, n. divine law. 

Dica, -am, f. a process ; PI. -as. Grates, f. thanks. 
Nefas, n. impiety. Melos, n. a song ; PL e. 

Nihil, and Nil,n. nothing. Mane, -e, -e. n. the morning. 

Tempe, n. the vale of Tempe. Tabes, f. consumption. 

Vepres, or -is, m. a brier \ 

Nom. Gen. and Abl. Tabum, n. putrid gore. 

Nom. Gen. and Ace. Munia, -orum, n. offices. 

Opts, f. Gen. help (from ops,) has opem and ope in the Ace. and 
Ablative, with the Plural complete, opes, opum, &c. wealth j and 
preci, f. Dat. a prayer, (from prex,) has precem and prece, with the 
Plural entire, preces, precum, &c. Femlnis, n. Gen. the thigh (from 
femen,) has femini, and-e, in the Dat. and Abl. Singular ; dnidfemina 
in the Nom. Ace. and Voc. Plural. 

Obs. 4. Vepres has the Plural entire ; and tabes and grati- 
bus, the Nominative and Ablative Plural of tabes, and grates 
are also found. 

The following Nouns want the Genitive, Dative and Abla- 
tive Plural. 

Far, n. corn. Mel, n. honey. Rus, n. the country. 

Hiems, f. winter. Metus, m. fear. Thus, n. frankincense. 

For nouns of the Fifth Declension, see §17. 

13. The following Nouns want the Nominative and Voca- 
tive, and are therefore used only in four Cases. 

Ditionis, f. power. Sordis, f. filth. 

Pecudis, f. a beast. Vicis, f. a change. 

To these may be added daps, f. a dish ; frux, f. corn ; and nex } f. 
slaughter, which are seldom used in the Nominative. The Plural of 
frux is entire ; daps wants the Genitive ; and nex seems to have the 
Nom. Ace. and Voc. only. 

Chaos, n. a confused mass, wants the Gen. and Dat. Sin- 
gular, and is not used in the Plural. 



§ 18 IRREGULAR NOUNS. 39 

Obs. 5. Pecudis and sordis have the Plural entire: vicis is 
defective in the Genitive ; ditionis has no Plural. 

14. Some Nouns are defective in one Case. 

The following want the Genitive Plural. 

Faex, f. dregs. Proles, f. offspring. 

Fax, f. a torch. Ros, m. dew. 

Labes, f. a stain. Soboles, f. offspring. 

Lux, f. light. Sol, m. the sun. 
Os, n. the mouth. 

Satias, f. a glut of any thing, and salum, n. the sea, want the Gen. 
Sing, and the Plural entirely. Situs, m. a situation, nastiness, wants 
the Gen. and perhaps the Dat. Sing, and probably the Gen. Dat. and 
Abl. Plural. Nemo, c. nobody, wants theVoc. Sing, and has no Plu- 
ral. 

II. Many Nouns are defective in number. 

15. Some Nouns, from the nature of the things which they 
express cannot be used in the Plural. Such are the names of 
virtues and vices, of arts, herbs, metals, liquors, different 
kinds of corn, abstract nouns, &c. : as, justitia, justice; lux- 
us, luxury ; rnvsica, music; apium, parsley; durum, gold; 
lac, milk ; trittcum, wheat; magnitude), greatness ;senectus, 
old age; macies, leanness, &c. But some of the Nouns in- 
cluded in these classes are occasionally found in the Plural. 

16. The following Masculine Nouns are scarcely used in 
the Plural : 

Aer, aeris, the air. Penus, -i, or -us, all manner of pro* 

JEtlier, -eris, the sky. visions. 

Fimus, -i, dung. Pontus, -I, the sea. 

Hesperus, -i, the evening star. Pulvis, -eris, dust. 
Limus, -i, mud. Sanguis, -Inis, blood. 

Meridies, iei, mid- day. Sopor, -oris, sleep. 

Mundus, -i, a woman's ornaments. Veternus, -i, a lethargy. 
Muscus, -i, moss. 

Note 3. — Aer., pulvis, and sopor are found in the Plural. 

17/ The following Feminine Nouns are scarcely used in 
the Plural: 

Argilla, -se, potter's earth. Salus, -utis, safety. 

Fames, -is, hunger. Sitis, -is, thirst. 



40 IRREGULAR NOUNS. § 18 

Humus, -i, the ground. Suppellex, -ctllis, household furni- 

Indoles, -is, a disposition. ture. 

Plebs, -is, the common people. Venia, -ae ; pardon. 

Pubes, -is, the youth. Vespera, -ae, the evening. 

Tlie following are sometimes found in the Plural: 

Bilis, -is, bile. Pituita, -ae, phlegm. 

Cholera, -ae, choler. Pix, -cis, pitch. 

Cutis, -is, the skin. Proles, -is, offspring. 

Fama, -se,fame. Quies, -etis, rest. 

Gloria, -ae, glory. Soboles, -is, offspring. 

Labes, -is, a stain. Tellus, uris, the earth 
Pax, -cis, peace. 

18. The following Neuter Nouns are scarcely used in the 
Plural: 

Album, -i, a list of names. Fcenum, -i, hay. 

Barathrum, -i, any deep place. Gelu, frost, ind. 

Diluculum, -i, the dawn of day. Hilum, -i, the black speck of a beany 

Ebur, -oris, ivory. a trifle. 

Jubar, -aris, the sunbeam. Penum, -i, and penus, -oris, all 

Justitium, -i, a vacation, the time kinds of provisions, 

when courts do not sit. Pus, puris, matter. 

Lardum, -i, bacon. Sal, salis, salt. 

Lethum, -i, death. Ver, veris, the spring. 

Lutum, -i, clay. Virus, -i, poison. 

Nectar -aris, nectar. Vitrum, -i, glass. 

Pelagus, -i, the sea. Yiscum, -i, the mistletoe. 

Vulgus, -i, the rabble. 

Obs. 6. Ebur, lardum, lutum and pus are found in the Plu- 
ral ; and pelage is found, in some cases, as the Plural of pe- 
lagus ; sal, as a Neuter Noun, is not used in the Plural. 

19. Many Nouns want the Singular ; as the Names of 
feasts, books, games, and many cities and places: as, 

Apollinares, -mm, games in honour Olympia, -orum,the Olympic games. 

of Jlpollo. Syraeusse, arum, Syracuse. 

Bacchanilia, -ium, and orum, £AeHierosolyma, -orum, Jerusalem. 

feasts of Bacchus. Thermopylae, -arum, the straits of 

Bucolica,-orum,a book of pastorals. Thermopoyla. 

20. The following Masculine Nouns are scarcely used in 
the Singular: 

Antes, the front rows of vines. Lemures, -um, ghosts, hobgoblins 



§18 



IRREGULAR NOUNS. 41 



Cancelli, lattices, or windows made Liberi, children. 

with cross-bars. Maj^res, -urn, ancestors 

Cani, gray hairs. Manes, -ium, ghosts. 

Celeres, -um, the light-horse. Minores, -urn, successors. 

Codicilli, writings. Penates, -urn, or -ium, household 

Fasti, orum, or fastus, -uxxm, ca- gods. 

lendars, in which were marked Posteri, posterity. 

festival-days, §c. Proceres, -um, the nobles. 

Fori, the gangways of a ship, or Pugillares, -ium, writing tables. 

seats in the Circus. Superi, the gods above. 
Inferi. the gods below. 

Obs. 7. Liberi and proceres (procerem) are also found in 
the Singular. Some of the others, as, inferi, majdres, &c. 
are properly Adjectives, and agree with the Substantives 
which are implied in their signification. 

21. The following Feminine Nouns want the Singular: 

Clitellae, a pannier. Exuviae, spoils. Insidise, snares. 

Cunae, a cradle. Feriae, holidays. Kalendae, Nona?, Idus, 

Dirae, imprecations. Gerrae, trifles. -uum, names which 

Divitiae, riches. Induciae, a truce. the Romans gave to 

Excubiae, watches. Induviae, clothes to put certain days in each 

Exsequiae, funerals. on. month. 

Lactes, the small guts. Nuptiae, a marriage. Scopae, abesom. 

Lapicidinae,sfome quar- Parietinae, ruinous, Tenebrae, darkness. 

ries. walls. Thermae, hot baths. 

Manubias, spoils taken Phalerae, trappings. Tricae, toys. 

in war. Primitive, first fruits. Valvae, folding doors. 

Minae, threats. Reliquiae, a remainder. Vindiciae, a claim of 

Nugae, trifles. Sallnae, salt-pits. liberty, a defence. 

Nundlnae, a market. Scalae, a ladder. 

The following are sometimes found in the Plural : 

Argutiae, quirks, witticisms. Charltes, -um, the Graces. 

Bigae, a chariot drawn by two Facetiae, pleasant sayings. 

horses. Ineptiae, silly stories. 

Trigae, — by three. < Praestigiae, enchantments. 

Quadrigae, — by four. Salebrae, rugged places. 
Braccae, breeches. 

22. The following Neuter Nouns want the Singular : 

Acta, public acts or records. Lautia, provisions for the entertain" 

Estiva, summer quarters. ment of foreign ambassadors. 

4* 



42 IRREGULAR NOUNS- § 18 

Anna, arms. Magalia, -urn, cottages, 

Bellaria, -urn, dainties. Mcenia, -urn, the walls of a city. 

Bre\ia, -urn. shallows. Orgia, the sacred rites of Bacchus, 

Cibaria, victuals. Parentalia, -urn, solemnities at the 
Crepundia, children's toys. funeral of parents. 

Cunabula, a cradle, an origin. Praecordia, the midriff, the bowels. 

Exta, the entrails. Sponsllia, -urn, espousals. 

Februa, purifying sacrifices. Stativa, a standing camp. 

Flabra, blasts of wind. Talaria, -urn. winged shoes. 

Fraga, strawberries. Tesqua, rough places. 

Hyberna, ivinter quarters. Transtra, the seats where the rowers 
Ilia, -urn, the entrails. sit in ships. 

Justa, funeral rites. Utensllia, -urn, utensils. 
Lamenta, lamentations. 

Obs. 8. Acta and transtra are also found In the Singular. 
Some of the ethers, as, (Estiva, brevia, hyberna, stativa, &c. 
are properly Adjectives; and agree with the Substantives 
which are necessary to complete their meaning. 

III. Redundant Nouns. 

23. Nouns are redundant in Termination, Gender, or form 
of Declension: as, arbor, or arbos, a tree ; valgus, the rabble, 
Masc. or Neut. menda, -ce, or mendum, -i, a fault. 

The most numerous class of Redundant Nouns is compos- 
ed of those which express the same meaning by different ter- 
minations as, 

iEther, -eris, 8c aethra, -oe^ the air. Amaracus, & -um, sweet, mar- 
Alvear, & -e, Sc -ium. a bee-hive. joram. 
AncTle, & -ium, an oval shield. Maceria, & -ies, iei, a wall. 
Angiportus, -us, & -i, 8c -um, a Materia, -ae, 8c -ies, -iei, matter. 

narrowlane. Menda, -as, & -um, -i, a fault. 

Aphractus, & -um, an open ship. Milliire, & -ium, a mile. 
Aplustre, St -um, the flag , colours , Monltum, & -us, -us, an admonx- 
Arbor, 8c -os, a tree. tion. 

Baculus, & -um, a staff. Muria, 8c -ies, -iei, brine or pickle. 

Balteus, Sc -um, a belt. Nasus, 8c -um, the nose. 

Batillus, 8c -um, afire-shovel. Obsidio, St -um, a siege. 

Capus, & -o, a capon. Ostrea, -ae, 8c -ea, -orum, an oyster. 

Cassis, -Idis, 8c -Ida, -idee, a helmet. Peplus, Sc -um, a veil, a robe. 
Cepa, & -e, indec. an onion. Penus, -us, & -i ; & -um ; & -us, 

Clypeus, 8c -um, a shield. -oris, provisions. 

Colluvies, & -io, filth, dirt. Pistrln^. & -um, a gi'inding-house. 



§ 18 IRREGULAR NOUJtfS. 43 

Compages, & -go, a joining. Plebs, & -es, the common people. 

Conger, & =grus, a large eel. Prsetextus, -us, & -um, a pretext.. 

Crocus, & -urn, saffron. Rapum, & -a, a turnip. 

Cubitus, & -um, a cubit. Ruma, & -men, the cud. 

Diluvium, & -es, a deluge. Ruscum, & -us, butcher's broom. 

Elegi, -orum, & -la, an elegy. Segmen, & -mentum, a paring. 

Elephantus, &. Elephas, -antis, an Sepes, & seps, a hedge. 

elephant. Sibllus, & -a, -orum, ahissing. 

Esseda, & -um, a chariot. Sinus, & -um, a milk pail. 

Eventus, & -a, -orum, an event. Stramen, & -turn, straw. 
Gausapa, & -e, -es ; & -e, -is ; & Sufflmen, & -turn, a perfume. 

-um, a rough cloth. Tignus, & -um, a plank. 

Gelu, & -um, frost. Toral, Sc -ale, a bed-covering. 

Gibbus, Sc -a; & -er, -eris, or -eri, Tonitrus, -us, & -u, & -uum, thun- 

a bunch, a. swelling. der. 

Glutinum, & -en, glue. Torcular, & -are, a wine-press. 

Grus, -uis, & -uis, -uis, a crane. Veternus, & -um, a lethargy. 
Laurus, -i, & -us, a laurel tree. Viscum, Sc -us, the mistletoe. 

Obs. 9. Some of the above nouns may be used in either, 
or any of the terminations, and in the Singular or Plural, in- 
differently ; some, as auxilium, laurus, -i)s, are used only in 
one or two cases; or in one number, as elegi; while others, 
as prcBtextus (a pretext) and pratextum (a border,) though 
sometimes synonymous, are commonly employed in a different 
meaning. 

24. The following Nouns have a double meaning in the 
Plural — one in addition to that which generally belongs to 
them in the Singular : 

Singular. Plural. 

Aedes, a temple. Aedes, a house. 

Auxilium, assistance. Auxilia, auxiliary troops. 

Bonum, any thing good. Bona, goods, property. 

Career, a prison. Carceres, the barriers of a race 

course. 

Castrum, a fort. Castra, a camp. 

Comitium, a place in the Roman Comitia, an assembly of the people 

forum, where the comitia were for the purpose of voting. 

held. 

Copia, plenty. Copiee. troops. 

Cupedia, daintiness. Cupediae, or -a, dainties. 

Facultas. power , ability, Facultates, wealth , property. 



44 OF ADJECTIVES. § 19 

Singular. Plural. 

Fastis, a bundle of twigs, a fagot. Fasces, a bundle of rods carried 

before the chief magistrate of 

Rome. 
Finis, the end of any thing. Fines, the boundaries of a country* 

For tuna, fortune. Fortunae, an estate, possessions. 

Gratia, grace, favour. Gratise, thanks. 

Hortus, a garden. Horti, pleasure- grounds. 

Litera, a letter of the alphabet. Literae, a letter, epistle. 
Lustrum, a period of five years. Lustra, dens of wild beasts. 
Natalis, a birth-day. Natales, birth, descent. 

Opera, labour. Operae, workmen. 

Opis, (Gen.) help. Opes, wealth, power. 

Pars, a part, portion. Partes, a party , fiction. 

Plaga, a space, a tract of country . Plagae, nets used by hunters. 
Principium, a beginning, a first Principia, a place in the camp where 

principle, or element. the generaVs tent stood. 

Rostrum, the beak of a bird, the Rostra, a pulpit in the Roman fo- 
sharp part of the provj of a ship, rum, from which orators used to 

address the people. 
Sal, salt. Sales, witticisms. 

Note 4. — All the Nouns in the preceding list, except castrum and 
comitium, are sometimes found in the Singular, in the sense in which 
they more commonly occur in the Plural. 



§ 19. OF ADJECTIVES. 

An Adjective is a word added to a noun to ex- 
press its quality; as, vir bonus, " a good man." 

1. The Accidents of the adjective are gender, number , and 
case, and of most adjectives also comparison. 

2. Adjectives indicate the gender, number and case by the 
termination; as, bon-us, Nom. Sing. Masc. bon-a, N. S. Fern. 
bon-um, N. S. Neut. &c. 

3. Participles have the form and declension of adjectives, 
while in time and signification they belong to the verb. 

4. Some adjectives denote each gender by a different ter- 
mination in the nominative, and consequently have three ter- 
minations. Some have one form common to the masculine 



§ 20 OF ADJECTIVES. 45 

and feminine, and are adjectives of two terminations, and 
some are adjectives of one termination, which is common to 
all genders. 

5. Adjectives are either of the First and Second Declen- 
sion, or of the third only. 

6. Adjectives of three terminations, (except eleven,) are 
of the first and second declension; but those of one or two 
terminations are of the third. 

Exc, Eleven adjectives in -er, of three terminations are 
of the third declension. See § 21. 5. 



§ 20. ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND 
DECLENSION. 

Adjectives of the First and Second Declension have the 
Masculine always in -us, or -er ; the Feminine always in -a, 
and the Neuter always in -urn, as Bonus, Masc. bona, Fern. 
honum, Neuter, good. 

1. Bonus, bona, bonum, good. 
Singular. Plural, 

Masc. Fern. Neut. Masc. Fern. Neut. 

N. bon-i, -ae, -a, 

G. bon-orum, -arum, -orum, 

D. bon-is, -is, -is, 

Ac. bon-os, -as -a, 

V. bon-i, -ae, -a, 

Ab. bon-is, -is, -is. 



N. bon-us, -a, -urn, 

G. bon-i, -ae, -i, 

D. bon-o, -ae, -o, 

Ac. bon-um, -am, -um, 

V. bon-e, -a -um, 

Ab. bon-o, -a, -o. 



In the same manner decline, 

Altns, high. Durus, hard. Lsetus, joyful. 

Cams, dear. F i&us, faithful, Plenus, full, 

Also all participles, numerals and pronouns in ~us; as, 
amatus, amatUrus, amandus,— primus, secundus, &c. meus^ 
tuus, suus; 

Note. — Meus has mi in the vocative masculine, seldom mem. 



46 



OP ADJECTIVES. 



§ 20 



2. Tener, tenera, tenertjm, lender. 
Singular. 

N. 
-um, 
-i, 

-o, 

-um, 
-um, 
-o. 

In the same manner decline, 

Miser, wretched. Exter , foreign. 

Prosper, prosperous. Satur, full. 
Also Compounds derived from gero and fero; as, laniger, bearing 
wool ; optfer, bringing help. 

But most adjectives in -er lose the e\ as, 



M. 


F. 


N. tener, 


-a, 


G. tener-i, 


-ae, 


D. tener-o, 


-ae, 


Ac. tener-um, 


-am, 


V. tener, 


-a, 


Ab. tener-o, 


-a, 




Intl 


Asper, rough. 




Liber, free. 





Plui 


•al. 




M. 


F. 


N. 


N. tener-i, 


-33, 


-a, 


G. tener-orum 


-arum 


,-orum 


D. tener-is, 


-is, 


-is, 


Ac. tener-os, 


-as, 


-a> 


V. tener-i, 


-33, 


-a, 


Ab. tener-is, 


-is, 


-is. 





3. A 


TER, ATRA, ATRUM, black. 






Singular 


Plural. 




M. 


F. 


F. M. F. 


N. 


N. ater, 


atra, 


atrum, 


N. atri, atrae, 


atra, 


G. atri, 


atrse, 


atri, 


G. atrorum, atrarum,atrorum, 


D. atro, 


atrae, 


atro, 


D. atris, atris, 


atris 


Ac. atrum. 


atram, 


atrum, 


Ac. atros, atras, 


atra, 


V. ater, 


atra, 


atrum, 


V. atri, atri, 


atra, 


Ab. atro, 


atra, 


atro. 


Ab. atris, atris, 


atris. 




I 


n like manner decline, 




iEger, sick 




Macer, lean, Sacer, sacred. 


Creber, frequent. 


Pulcher, ft 


iir. Sinister, left 





Dexter, right, has -tra, -trum; or -t&ra, -tSrujn. 

4. The following adjectives have the Genitive Singular in 
-sws, and the Dative in -i; namely, 
Alius , another of many . Solus, alone. 

Totus, vjhole. 

Ullus, any. 

Unus, one. 

Uter, whether. 



Alter, the other of two. 
Alteruter, the one or 

other. 
Neuter, neither 
Nullus, none. 



Uterlibet, which of the 

two you please. 
Uterque, both. 
Uter vis, which of the 

two you please. 



In the other cases, they are like bonus, tener or ater; as, 



§21 



Singular. 



M. 


F. 


N. tot-us, 


-a, 


G. tot-ius, 


-ius 


D. tot-i, 


-h 


Ac. tot-um, 


-am, 


V. tot-e, 


-a, 


Ab. tot-o, 


-a, 



OF ADJECTIVES* 






47 


, TOTA, TOTUM, ivhole. 








Plural. 




N. M. 




F. 


N. 


•urn, 


N. tot-i, 




-ae, 


-a, 


-ius, 


G. tot-orum, 


-arum, 


-orum, 


-i 3 


D. tot-is, 




-is, 


-is, 


-um, 


Ac. tot-os. 




-as, 


-a, 


-um, 


V. tot-i, 




-ae, 


-a, 


-0. 


Ab. tot-is, 




-is, 


-is. 



Note. — Alius has aliud in the Neuter ; and in the Genitive alius, 
contracted for aliius. Dative alii. The genitive in -ius in poetry has 
the i either long or short ; in prose always long. 



§ 21. ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

Rule 1. — Adjectives of the Third Declension 
have -e, or -i 9 in the Ablative Singular; but if the 
Neuter be in -e, the Ablative has -z,.only. 

Rule 2. — The Genitive Plural ends in -ium, and 
the Neuter of the nominative, accusative and vo- 
cative in -ia. 

Exc. Except comparatives, which have -um, 
and -a. 

I. Adjectives of one termination. 





1. 


Felix, happy. 




Singular. 


Plural. 




M. 


F. 


N. M. F. 


N. 


N. fel-ix, 


-ix, 


-ix, 


N. fel-ices, -ices, 


-icia, 


G. fel-icis, 


-icis, 


-icis, 


G. fel-icium, -icium, 


-icium, 


D. fel-ici, 


-ici, 


-ici, 


D. fel-icibus, -icibus, 


-icibus, 


Ac. fei-icem. 


-Icem, 


-ix, 


Ac. fol-ices, -ices, 


-icia, 


V. fel-ix, 


-ix, 


-ix, 


V. fel-ices, -ices, 


-Icia, 


Ab. fel-ice, or -Ici, &c. 




Ab. fel-icibus, -icibus, 


-icibus. 



In like manner decline, 
Trux-ucis, cruel. Velox-ocis. swift. 



48 




OF ADJECTIVES 






2. 


Prudens, -prudent. 






Singular, 






M. 


F. 


N. 


N. 


prudens, 


prudens, 


prudens, 


G. 


prudent-is, 


prudent-is, 


prudent-is 


D. 


prudent-i, 


prudent-i, 


prudent-i, 


Ac. 


prudent- em, 


prudent-em, 


prudens, 


V. 


prudens, 


prudens, 


prudens, 


Ah 


. prudent-e, or -i. 


prudent-e, or -i 
Plural. 


. prudent-e, or 


N. 


prudent-es, 


prudent-es, 


prudent-ia, 


G. 


prudent-ium, 


prudent-ium, 


prudent-ium, 


D. 


prudent-ibus, 


prudent-ibus, 


prudent-ibus, 


Ac 


prudent-es, 


prudent-es, 


prudent-ia, 


V. 


prudent-es, 


prudent-es, 


prudent-ia, 


Ah 


prudent-ibus, 


prudent-ibus, 


prudent-ibus. 



§21 



In like manner decline, 

Ingens-tis great, Recens, fresh, Clemens, gentle. Also all partici- 
ples in -ns; as, amans, docens, &c. 

Note. — Participles have oftener -e than -i in the Ablative Singular, 
and in the Ablative absolute have -e, only. 



II. Adjectives of two terminations. 
3. Mitis, mite, meek. 



Singular. 




Plural. 




M. 


F. 


N. 


N. 


N. mit-is, 


-is, 


-e, 


N. mit-es, -es, 


-ia, 


G. mit-is, 


-is, 


-is,- 


G. mit-ium, -ium, 


-ium, 


D. mit-i, 


-i 3 


-h 


D, mit-ibus, -lbus, 


-lbus, 


Ac. mit-em, 


-em 


» -e, 


Ac. mit-es, -es, 


-ia, 


V. mit-is, 


-is, 


-e, 


V. mit-es, -es, 


-ia, 


Ah. mit-i, 


-h 


-i. 


Ah. mit-ibus, -lbus, 


-lbus. 




In the same manner decline, 




Agilis, active. 




Debllis, weak. Talis, such. 




Brevis, short. 




Incolumis, 


safe. UtiliS; useful. 





§21 



OF ADJECTIVES, 



49 



4* Comparative Degree^ — Mxtxorjmitius, more meek. 

Plural. 
M> F, N. 

iV. miti-ores, -ores, -ora, 



Singular. 
M. F* 

JV. miti-or, -or, 
G. miti-oris, -oris 
D. miti-dri, -ori, 
Ac. miti-orem, -orem, -us, 
V. rniti-or, -or, -us 
Ab. miti-ore, or -ori, &c. 



N. 
-us, 
-oris, 
-ori, 



G. miti-orum, -orum, -orum, 
D. miti-oribus,-oribus,-oribus 
Ac* miti-ores, -ores, -ora, 
V. miti-ores, -ores, -ora, 
Ab. miti-oribus,-oribus,oribus 



In like manner decline, 
Brevior, shorter. Molior, softer. Altior, higher. 

Fortior, braver. Durior, harder. and all other comparatives. 

Exc. Plus, more, has only the Neuter Gender in the Sin- 
gular, and is thus declined. 



Singular. 
Neut. 
N. plus, 
G. pluris, 

D. 

Ac. plus, 

V. 

Ab. plur-e, or -i. 



M. 

N. plur-es, 
G. plur-ium, 
D. plur-Ibus, 
Ac. plur-es, 

V. 

Ab. plur-ibus. 



Plural. 
F. 

-es, 

-ium, 

-Ibus, 

-es, 



N. 
-a, and -ia, 
-ium, 
-Ibus, 
-a, and -ia, 



-ibus, -ibus. 



Note. — Pluria is hardly ever used in the Nom. Plur. Neuter. Its 
compound, comphires. has no singular. 

III. Adjectives of three terminations. 

5. Acer, or acris, acre, sharp. 



Singular. 
M. 
N, a-cer,t?-cris, 



P. 

-cris, 
-cris, 



G. a-eris, 

D. a-cri, 

Ac. a-crem 

V. a-cer,t;-cris, -ens, 

Ab. a-cri, -cri, 



N. 

-ere, 

-cris. 

-en, -cri, 

-crem, -ere, 

ere, 

cri. 



Plural. 
M. F. N. 

a-cres, -cres, -cria, 
a-crium, -crium, -crium, 



N. 

G. 

D. a-cribus,-cribus, -cribus, 

Ac. a-cres, -cres, -cria, 

V. a-cres, -cres, -cria, 

Ab. a-cribus, -crlbus,-crlbue. 



60 



OP ADJECTIVES 



§21 



Besides acer, the following ten are declined in this way. 

Alacer, cheerful. Celer, swift. Pedester, on foot. 

Campester, belonging Equester, belonging to Saluber, wholesome. 

to the plain. a horse. Sylvester, woody. 

Celeber, famous. Paluster, marshy. Volucer, swift. 

Exceptions in the Ablative Singular and Genitive 
Plural. 

Ezc. 1. The following adjectives have -e only in the Ab- 
lative singular, and -um in the genitive plural: viz. 



Coslebs, unmarried. Pauper, poor. 

Compos, master of. Juvenis, young. 

* Concolor, of the same Pubis, marriageable. 

color, Senex, old. 

Hospes, strange. Sospes, safe. 

Impos, unable. Impubes, beardless. 



Superstes, surviving. 

* Tricorpor, three-bo- 

died. 

* Tricuspis, three- 

pointed 

* Tripes, three-footed. 
Vetus, old. 



* The other compounds of color, corpor, cuspis and pes, have like- 
wise -e and -urn. 
Note. — Ccelebs, compos, impos and superstes, have sometimes -i in 

the ablative. Vetus has commonly veteri, but always veUra and vet&r- 
um in the plural. 

Exc. 2. The following adjectives have -e or -i in the abla- 
tive singular, and -um in the Genitive Plural : viz. 



Ales, winged. 
Anceps, double. 
Artlfex, artificial. 
Celer, swift. 
* Compar, equal. 
Consors, sharing. 



Degener, degenerate. 
Dives, rich, 
Inops, poor. 
Memor, mindful. 
Particeps, sharing. 



Praeceps, headlong, 
Supplex, suppliant. 
liber, fertile. 
Vigil, watchful. 
Volucris, swift. 



* Dispar, different, impar, unequal, and separ, separate, have also 
~um. Par has -i only in the ablative, and -ium in the Genitive Plural, 
but its compounds have in the poets -e or -i, indifferently. 

Note. — Celer, memor, and volucris have -i only in the Abl, and vo- 
lucris and vigil have sometimes -um in the Genitive Plural. 

Locuples, rich, has locupletum, or locupletium. 



§ 22 OF ADJECTIVES. 51 

§ 22. IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES. 
Irregular adjectives are Defective or Redundant. 

I. DEFECTIVE ADJECTIVES- 

1. Quot, how many ? tot, so many ; aliquot, some; g&o£- 
quot, and quotcunque, how many soever ; totidem, just so 
many ; are indeclinable, and used only in the Plural Number. 
Nequam, worthless, is also indeclinable, but used in both 
Numbers. 

2. Exspes, hopeless ; and potis, pote, able, are used only 
in the Nominative. They are of all Genders, and the latter 
is also found joined with Plural Nouns. 

Tantundem, as much, has tantidem, *in the Genitive, and 
tantundem, m. and n. in the Nominative and Accusative Sin- 
gular. 

Necesse, or -urn, necessary 5 and volupe, pleasant, are used 
only in the Nominative and Accusative Singular. 

3. Mactus, -e, and PL -z, a common word of encourage- 
ment, brave! gallant! is used only in the Nominative, and 
Vocative Singular, and Nominative Plural. 

Plus, more, in the Singular is Neuter only ; wants the Da- 
tive, and probably the Vocative ; has -e only in the Ablative, 
and -a, seldom -ia, in the Nominative, Accusative, and Voca- 
tive Plural Neuter. 

Primoris, Gen. first, wants the Nominative and Voc. Sin- 
gular, and the Nom. Ace. and Voc. Plural Neuter ; likewise 
seminecis, half dead, which is not used in the Neuter and 
has seminecum, in the Genitive Plural. 

Pauci, few, and plerique, the most part, are seldom used 
in the Singular. 

4. The following classes of words want the Vocative : viz, 
Partitives; as, quidam, alius: Relatives; as, qualis, quart- 
tus: Negatives; as, melius, neuter : Interrogatives ; as, quo- 
tus ? uter ? 

Except alzquis, quicunque, quilibet, and quisque. See § 37. 

5. The following Adjectives of one termination in -er, -es, 
-or, -OS, and -fex, with the others contained in the subjoined 
list, are scarcely used in the Nominative, Accusative, and 
Vocative Plural Neuter. 



52 OF ADJECTIVES. § 23 

Adjectives in ER : as, pauper, puber, celer, degener, uber, 

Adjectives in FEX : as, artifex, carnifex. 

Adjectives in OR : as, memor, concolor, bicorpor. 

Adjectives in ES : as, ales, dives, locuples, sospes, super* 
stes, deses, reses, hebes, teres, prcepes. 

Adjectives in OS : as, compos, impos, exos* 

Also pubis, impubis, supplex, comis, mops, vigil, sons, tn- 
sons, intercus, redux, and perhaps some others. 

Cceter. or cceterus, the rest, is scarcely used in the Nom, 
Sing. Masculine, 

Victrix, victorious, and ultrix, revengeful, are Feminine 
only in the Sing, but Fern, and Neut. in the Plural ; vicirl- 
ces, victricia^ 

REDUNDANT ADJECTIVES. 

6. Some Adjectives compounded of cHvus , frenum, bacillum, arma 
jugum, limus, somnus, and animus, have two forms of Declension ; 
one in -us, of the First and Second Declension ; and another in -is, of 
the Third : as, acclivus, -a, -urn, and acclivis, -c, steep ,• imbecillus , 
and imbecillis, weak; semisomnus, and semisomnis, half- slee ping ; 
exanimus and exammis. dead. Also hilaris, and hilarus, merry. 

Obs. Some of these Compounds do not admit of this variation : 
as, magnanimus. flexanimus, effrenus, levisomnus, not magnanimis, 
fyc. On the contrary, pusillanimis. injugis, illimis, insomnis, exsom- 
nis, are used, and not pusill animus, §c. Semianimis, inermis, subli- 
mis, acclivis, declivis, proclivis, are more common than semianimus, 
4*c. Inanimis and bijugis are scarcely used. 



§ 23. EXERCISES ON ADJECTIVES. 

1. Adjectives and Substantives to be declined together. 

Parva casa, a small cottage. Alta arbor, a high tree. 

Clarus poeta, a famous poet. Priscus mos, an ancient custom. 

Pulchrafilia, a beautiful daughter. Callida sestas, a warm summer. 

Dulce pomum, a sweet apple. Tutus portus, a safe harbour. 

Docilis puer, a docile boy. Nobile carmen, a noble poem. 

Breve sevum, a short life. Antiqua urbs, an ancient city. 

Capax antrum, a capacious den. Magna dos, a great dowry. 



§24 



OF NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 



53 



Magnum opus, a great work, Cava navis, a hollow ship. 

Serenus dies, a clear day. Culpatus Paris, wicked Paris. 

Densa nubes, a thick cloud. Miser Tros, a miserable Trojan. 

Fidus pastor, a faithful shepherd. Infelix Dido, unhappy Dido. 



2. Translate the following 
ing to their number and case : 



words into English accord - 



O peris magni, 
Claro poetae, 
Diei sereno, 
Diei sereni, 
Densis nubibus, 
Fidi pastoris, 
iEvo brevi, 



Urbem antiquam, 
Poetis claris, 
Pueri dociles, 
Dote magna, 
Morum priscorum, 
Carminis nobilis, 
Callida se state, 



Urbis antiquse, 
Paridi culpato, 
Arbores altee, 
Trois miseri. 
Dido infelici, 
Portibus tutis 
Dulcium pomorum. 



3. Translate the following phrases into Latin, observing 
to put the adjective in the same gender, number and case with 
the substantive. The words will be found in the above list. 
To a small cottage. Of ancient customs, In a great work, 
Of a capacious den, Of an ancient city, With wicked Paris, 
From lofty trees, To a great work, A harbour safe, 
For unhappy Dido, O wicked Paris, In a clear day, 
In a hollow ship, Faithful shepherds, Of small cottages, 
A wretched Trojan, In a short life, To a thick cloud, 

With thick clouds, With a sweet apple, With high trees, 
From a clear day, With clear days, Beautiful daughters, 
Of sweet apples, Noble poems, In a warm summer, 

High trees, Of ancient cities, Of a short life, 

With great dowries, In small cottages, With docile boys. 



§ 24. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 

Numeral adjectives are those which signify number. In 
Latin, they are divided into four classes : viz. 

1. Cardinal, which express number simply, or how many \ 
as, one, two, three, four, &e. 

2. Ordinal^ denoting which one of a number; as, first, 
second, third, fourth, &c. 

3. Distributive, denoting how many to each ; as, hint \ 
two by two, or, two to each. 

4. Multiplicative, denoting how many fold* 

5* 



54 



OF NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 



§ 24 



I. CARDINAL NUMBERS 



The Cardinal or Ti 
Unus, 
Duo, 
Tres, 

Quatuor, 

Quinque ; 

Sex, 

Septeni, 

Octo, 

Novem, 

Decern, 

Undecim, 

Duodecimo 

Tredeeim. 

Quatuordecim, 

Quindecim, 

Sedecim. or Sexdecim . 

Septemdecim. 

Octodecim. 

Novemdecim, 

Viginti; 

Viginti unus, or } 

Unus et viginti, J> 
Viginti duo, or \ 

duo et viginti. &ce. S 
Triginta> 
Quadraginta 
Quinquaginta 
Sexaginta, 
Septuaginta 
Octoginta, 
Nonaginta , 
Centum, 
Centum unus, or \ 

centum et unus. &c. S 
Ducenti, -se, -a. 
Trecenti, 
Quadringenti 
Quingenti, 
Sexcenti, 
Septingenti, 
Octingenti, 



incipal numbers. 


are : 


one. 


I. 


two. 


II. 


three. 


III. 


four. 


1III, or IV 


five. 


V. 


six. 


VI. 


seven. 


VII. 


eight. 


VIII. 


nine. 


Villi, or IX 


ten. 


X. 


eleven. 


XI. 


twelve. 


XII. 


thirteen, 


XIII. 


fourteen 


XIIII, or XIV 


fifteen. 


XV. 


sixteen. 


XVI. 


seventeen 


XVII. 


eighteen. 


XVIII. 


nineteen. 


XVIIII, or XIX. 


twenty. 


XX 


twenty -one 


XXI. 


twenty -tic, 


XXII 


thirty , 


XXX. 


forty . 


XXXX, or XL 


fifty- 


L. 


sixty. 


LX. 


seventy . 


LXX. 


eighty. 


LXXX. 


ninety. 


LXXXX, orXC 


a hundred. 


C 


a hundred and one 


,4-c. CI. 


two hundred. 


CC 


three hundred. 


CCC 


four hundred. 


CCCC 


five hundred. 


13 or D. 


six hundred. 


IOC, or DC. 


seven hundred. 


IOCC, or DCC, 


eight hundred. 


IOCCC. orDCCC 



5 24 



OF NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 



55 



iNongenti 
Mille, 

Duo miilia, or \ 

bis mille., $ 
Quinque miilia , or \ 

quinquies mille, \ 
Decern miilia, or ) 

decies mille, \ 
Quinquaginta miilia, or 

quinquagies mille, 
Centum miilia, or > 

eenties mille, ) 



nine hundred, 
a thousand. 

two thousand, 
five thousand, 
ten thousand, 
fifty -thousand. 



IOCCCC, or DCCCC. 
CIO, or M. 

CIO CIO, or MM, 

100, or V. 

CCIOO, orX. 

1000, or L. 



a hundred thousand. CCCI000, or C. 
OBSERVATIONS, 



1. Eighteen and nineteen are more properly expressed by 
duodeviginti, and undeviginti ; from which Ordinals, Dis- 
tributives and Adverbs are likewise formed. The same 
form is also used in the corresponding numbers of each of 
the other decades ; as, duodetriginta, twenty-eight ; unde- 
trigi?ita, twenty-nine, &c. 

2. The Cardinal numbers, except unus and mille, want the 
singular. 

3. Unus, as a numeral, is not used in the plural except 
when joined with a substantive that wants the Singular ; as, 
una mcenia, one wall $ or when several particulars are con- 
sidered as one whole; zsuna vestimenta, one suit of clothes, 
Unus is declined like totus, § 20. 4. 

Duo, two, and Tres, three, are thus declined. 

Plural. 
M. P. N. 

IV". duo, duae, duo, 

G. duorum, duarum, duorum, 
D. duobus, duabus, duobus, 
Ac. duos,-o, duas, duo, 
V. duo, duae, duo, 
Ab. duobus, duabus, duobus. 

Ambo, both, is declined like duo. 

4. All the Cardinal numbers from quatuor to centum, in- 
elusive, are indeclinable ; and from centum to mille, they are 
declined like the plural of bonus, § 20. 1. 

5. Mille, when placed before a Genitive Plural is a sub- 
stantive indeclinable in the singular ; in the plural it is de- 





Plural. 




M. 


F. 


N. 


N. tres, 


tres, 


tria, 


G. trium, 


trium, 


trium, 


D. tribus, 


tribus, 


tribus, 


Ac. tres, 


tres, 


tria, 


V. tres, 


tres, 


tria, 


Ab. tribus 


tribus, 


tribus. 



56- OF NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. § 24 

clined like the plural of sedile, § 12. 8 ; thus, millia, milli- 
um, millions, &c. When it has a substantive in any other 
ease, than the Genitive Plural joined to it, it is a plural adjec- 
tive, indeclinable; as mille homines ■, a thousand men; bis 
mille hominibus, with two thousand men. 

ROMAN METHOD OF NOTATION BY LETTERS. 

6. The capital letters used by the Romans to denote num- 
bers, were C. I. L. V. X. which are therefore called Nume- 
ral Letters. I, denotes one ; V, five; X, ten; L, fifty; 
and C, a hundred. By the various combinations of these let- 
ters, all numbers were expressed as follows. 

The repetition of a letter repeats its value ; thus, II, sig- 
nifies tivo ; III, three ; XX, twenty ; XXX, thirty ; CC, two 
hundred ; CCC, three hundred, &c. V and L are never re- 
peated. 

When a letter of less value is placed before another of 
greater value, the value of the less is taken from the greater. 
When placed after it, the value of the less is added to the 
greater; thus. 

IV. Four. V. Five, VI. Six, 

IX. Nine, X. Ten, XI. Eleven, 

XL. Forty. L. Fifty, LX. Sixty, 

, XC. Ninety. C. A hundred, CX. a hundred & ten 

A thousand was marked CIO, which was afterwards ex- 
pressed by M, the initial of Mille. Five hundred is marked 
10, afterwards changed into D. 

The annexing of to 10, makes its value ten times great- 
er ; thus, 100, denotes five thousand ; 1000, fifty thousand. 

In like manner a C prefixed, together with another an- 
nexed to the numerals CIO, always increases the value 
tenfold; thus, CIO, a thousand; CCIOO, ten thousand; 
CCCIOOO, a hundred thousand. Any higher number than 
this, according to Pliny, was expressed by repetiton; thus, 
CCCIOOO, CCCIOOO, two hundred thousand. 

Thousands are sometimes expressed by a line drawn over 
the numeral letters ; thus, III, denotes three thousand, X, 
ten thousand, &c. 



§24 



OP NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 
II. ORDINAL NUMBERS. 



57 



The Ordinal Numbers are formed from the cardinal 5 they 
all end in -us, and are declined like bonus; § 20. 1. as, pri- 
mus, first, secundus-, second, &c. See the following table, 

III. DISTRIBUTIVE NUMBERS. 

The Distributive Numbers are all plural and declined like 
the plural of bonus, except that they usually have -urn for 
-drum, in the genitive plural ; as, singulis one by one, or, 
one to each ; bini, two by two, or, two to each. 

The following table contains the Ordinal and Distributive 
numbers, and the corresponding Numeral Adverbs. 



Ordinal. 

1. Primus, first. 

2. Secundus, second. 

3. Tertius, third. 

4. Quartus, &c. 

5. Quintus, 
t5. Sextus, 

7. Septimus, 

8. Octavus, 

9. Norms, 

10. Declmus, 

11. Undecimus, 

12. Duodeclmus, 

13. Tertius declmus, 

14. Quartus declmus, 

15. Quintus decimus, 

16. Sextus declmus, 

17. Septimus declmus, 

18. Octavus declmus, 

19. Nonus declmus, 

20. Vicesimus, or ) 

vigesimus, > 

21. Vicesimus primus, 

22. Vicesimus secundus, 
30. Tricesslmus, or } 

trigesimus, £ 
40. Quadragesimus, 
50. Quinquageslmus. 



Singuli, one by one. 

Bini, two by two. 

Terni, or trini, &c. 

Quaterni, 

Quini, 

Seni, 

Septeni, 

Octoni, 

Noveni, 

Deni, 

Undeni, 

Duodeni, 

Terni deni, 

Quar terni deni, 

Quini deni, 

Seni deni, 

Septeni deni, 

Octoni deni, 

Noveni deni, 

Viceni, 

Viceni singuli, 
Viceni bini, 

Triceni, > 

Quadrageni, 
Quinquageni, 



Numeral Adverbs. 
Semel, once. 
Bis, twice. 
Ter, thrice. 
Quater, four times. 
Quinquies, &c. 
Sexies . 
Septies. 
Octies. 
Novies. 
Decies. 
Undecies. 
Duodecies. 
Terdecies. 
Quaterdecies. 
Quindecies. 
Sedecies. 
Decies et septies. 
Decies et octies. 
Decies et nonies. 

Vicies. 

Semel et vicies, 
Bis et vicies, &c, 

Tricies. 

Quadragies, 
Quinquagies, 



58 



OP NUMERAL ADJECTIVES 



§24 



60. Sexageslmus, 
70. Septuageslmus, 
80. Octogeslmus. 
90. Nonageslmus, 
100. Centeslmus. 
200. Ducenleslmus, 
300. Trecenteslmus, 
400. Quadri ngente- ) 
slmus, J 

500. Quingentesimus, 
600. Sexcenteslmus, 
TOO. Septingentesimus, 
S00. Octingenteslmus, 
900. Nongentesimus. 

1000. Millislmus, 
2000. Bis millislmus, 



Sexageni, 

Septageni, 

Octogeni, 

]N T onageni. 

Centeni, 

Duceni, 

Treceni, or trecenteni, 

Quadringeni, or > 

quadringenteni, ) 
Quingeni, 

Sexceni, or Sexcenteni, 
Septingeni; 
Octingeni, 
Xongeni, 
Milleni, or > 

singula millia, $ 
Bis milleni, or > 

bina millia , \ 



Sexagies. . 

Septuagies. 

Octogies. 

Nonagies 

Centies. 

Ducenties. 

Trecenties. 

Quadringenties. 

Quingenties. 

Sexcenties. 

Septingenties. 

Octingenties. 

Noningenties, 

Millies. 
Bismillies. 



7. Instead of primus, 'prior is used, if only two are spoken 
of. Alter is often used for secundus. 

Twenty-first, thirty-first, &c. are often expressed by unus 
et vicesimus, units et trice svmus, &c. and twenty-second, &c. 
by duo, or alter et vice shims, &c, in which duo is indecli- 
nable. In the other compound numbers, the larger precedes 
without et, or the smaller with el; as, vicesimus quartzes, or, 
quarlus et vicesimus* 

8. Distributives are sometimes used by the poets for car- 
dinal numbers ; as, bina spicula, tw r o darts. In this sense 
it is often found in the singular ; as, centena arbor e, for cen- 
turn arboribus. Virg. 

9. The singular of some distributives is sometimes used in 
the sense of a multiplicative ; as binus, two-fold, &c. 



IV MULTIPLICATIVE NUMBERS. 

Multiplicatives denote how manifold ; they all end in -ex, 
and are declined like felix, § 21. 1. They are as follows: 



Simplex, single. 
Duplex, double. 
Triplex, threefold. 



Quadruplex, fourfold. 
Quintuplex, fivefold. 
Centuplex, a hundredfold. 



§ 25 COMPARISON OP ADJECTIVES. 59 

10. To these classes may be added, 

1st. Proportionals, which denote how many times one thing 

is greater than another ; as, duplies, twice as great. 
2d, Temporals, which denote time ; as, bimus, two years 

old; biennis, of two years continuance. 
3d . Those which denote how many parts a thing contains ; 

as, binarius of two parts. 
4th. Interrogatives, as, quot, how many ; quotus, of what 
number ; quoteni, how many each ? quoties, how 
many times ? which have for their corelatives tot , to- 
tidem, &c. 
■ 11. The learner should carefully notice-the distinction be- 
tween the cardinal and distributive numerals in their ordina- 
ry use. Thus, for example. Duo consules viginti naves 
habebant, means " the two consuls together had twenty ships, 55 
i. e. twenty in all, or ten each ; but Duo,cousules vicenas 
naves habebant, means " the two consuls had twenty ships 
each" or forty in all. 



§ 25. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives have three degrees of comparison, 
the Positive, Comparative and Superlative. 

The Positive expresses a quality simply, as bonus, good; 
durus, hard. 

The Comparative asserts it in a higher or lower degree 
in one object than in another. 

The Superlative asserts it in the highest or lowest de- 
gree in one object compared with several; as, Gold is heavi- 
er than Silver ; it is the most precious of the metals. 

Hence, those adjectives only can be compared whose sig- 
nification admits the distinction of more and less* 

The positive is an adjective of the first and second declen- 
sion, or of the third only; § 19. 5; the Comparative is al- 
ways of the Third, the Superlative is always of the First and 
Second. 



60 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 



§25 



RULES OF COMPARISON, 

1. The Comparative is formed from any case 
of the positive ending in -*", by adding -or, for 
the Masculine and Feminine, and -us for the 
Neuter; as, 

Positive. Comparative. 

M. F. N. 

Durus, hard) (duri,) duri-or, duri-us, harder. 

Brevis, short, (brevi,) brevi-or, brevi-us, shorter. 
Audax, bold, (audaci,) audaci-or, audaci-us, bolder. 

2. The Superlative is formed from any case 
of the positive ending in -?', by changing A into 
-issimus. 



Superlative. 
durissimus-a-um, hardest. 
brevissimus-a-um, shortest. 
audacissimus, boldest* 



Positive. 
Durus, hard) (duri,) 
Brevis, short, (brevi,) 
Audax, bold, (audaci,) 

Exc. If the positive end in -er, the superlative 
is formed by adding -rimus; as, 

Positive. Superlative. 

Nodi. Pulcher, fair, pulcher-rimus-a-um, fairest. 

Nom. Pauper, poor, pauper-rimus-a-um, poorest. 

Hence these adjectives will be compared thus: 



Pos. 


Comp. 


Sup. 




Durus, 


durior, 


durissimus. Hard. harder. 


hardest. 


Brevis, 


brevior. 


brevisslmus. Short, shorter , 


shortest. 


Audax. 


audacior, 


audacissimus, Bold, bolder, 


boldest. 


Pulcher. 


pulchrior. 


pulcherrlmus, Fair, fairer, 


fairest 


Pauper. 


pauperior, 


pauperrlmus, Poor. poorer, 


poorest . 




In the same manner compare. 




Altus, 


high. 


Felix, happy. Levis, light. 




Durus, 


hard. 


Lentus, slow. Sapiens, wise 




Capax 


, capacious. 


Gravis, heavy. Vehemens, vehement* 


Crebei 


•, frequent. 


Integer, entire. Prudens, prud 


em. 


Firmus, strong. 


Fortis, brave. Liber, free. 




Piger, 


slow. 


Velox, swift. Doctus, learned. 



§ 26 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 61 

§ 26. IRREGULAR & DEFECTIVE COMPARISONS. 

Pos. Comp. Sup, 

Bonus, melior, optimus ; 

Magnus, major, maximus ; 

Mafus, pejor, pessimus ; 

Multus, plus, n. plurimus; 

Parvus, minor, minimus ; 

Ohs. Plus has only the neuter in the singular. In the plu- 
ral it is regular, and is declined as, § 21. 4. Exc. 

1. The following Adjectives form the Superlative in -limus : 



Good, 


better. 


best. 


Great? 


greater, 


greatest, 


Bad, 


worse, 


worst. 


Much, 


more, 


most* 


Little, 


less, 


least. 



Facilis, easy. 


facilior, 


facilllmus. 


Gracilis, lean. 


gracilioi 


r, gracilllmus. 


Humilis, low. 


humilioi 


• } humilllmus. 


Imbecillis, weak, 


imbecillior ; imbecillimus. 


Simllis, like. 


similior. 


simillimus. 


2. The following Adjectives have the Comparative regular, 


but the Superlative irregular. 




C iter j near, 


citerior, 


citlmus. 


Dexter, right, 


dexterior, 


dextlmus. 


Exter, outward, 


exterior, 


extremus, or extimus* 


Infer us j low, 


inferior, 


inf Imus, or imus. 


Interus, inward, 


interior, 


intlmus. 


Maturus, ripe, 


maturior, 


maturrimus, or maturissimus. 


Posterus, behind, 


posterior, 


postremus, or postumus, 


Sinister, left. 


sinisterior. 


sinistlmus. 


Superus, high, 


superior, 


supremus, or summus. 


Vetus, old, 


veterior, 


veterrlmus. 



Note. — Dives, rich, has commonly ditior and ditissimus, for its 
Comparative and Superlative ; contracted for divitior and divitis' 



3. Compounds in dicus, ftcus, loquus, and volus, form the 
Comparative in -entior, and the Superlative in -entissimus. 

Maledicus, railing, maledicentior, 

Benef Icus, beneficent, beneficentior, 

Mirificus, wonderful, mirificentior, 

Magniloguus, boasting, magniloquentior, 



Benevolus, benevolent, 



benevolentior. 
6 



maledicentissimus. 

beneficentissimus. 

mirificentisslmus. 

magniloquentisslmus. 

benevolentisslmus , 



62 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. § 26 

Note.—Mirificus has also miriflcisslmus in the Superlative. The 
Compounds of loquus are not found in the Superlative. 

4. The following Adjectives want the Positive: 
Deterior, worse, deterrlmus. Propior, nearer , proxlmuf. 
Ocior, swifter, occisslmus. Ulterior, farther, ultimus. 
Prior, former, primus. 

5. The following Adjectives want the Comparative : 
Inclytus, renowned, inclytisslmus. Par, equal, parisslmus. 
Invictus, invincible, invictlssimus. Persuasus, persuaded, per- 
Merltus, deserving, meritisslmus. suasisslmus. 

Novus, new, novisslmus. Sacer, sacred, sacerrlmus. 

Nuperus, late, nuperrlmus. 

6. The following Adjectives want the Superlative: 
Adolescens, young, adolescentior. Opimus, rich, opimior. 
Diuturnus, lasting, diuturnior. Pronus, bending down; pronior. 
Ingens, huge, ingentior. Satur,/w/Z, saturior. 
Juvenis, young, junior. Senex, old, senior. 

Note. — The Superlative of juvZnis, or adolescens, is supplied by 
minimus natu, the youngest ; senex takes maximus natu, the oldest. 

7. Almost all Adjectives in -His, (penult long,) -alis, and 
-Vilis, want the Superlative ; as, civtlis, civilior, civil ; regalis 
regalioT) regal ; flebiliS) -ior, lamentable. 

Note. — Some Adjectives of these terminations have the superlative 
also -, as cequalis, frugal is, hospUdlis, liberalis, vocalis — affabilis, ama- 
bilis, habilis, ignobllis, mirabilis, mobilis, mutabilis, nobilis, stabilis, 

Some Adjectives of other terminations also want the Superlative : 
as, arcanus, -ior, secret ; declivu, -ior, bending downwards ; longin- 
quus, -ior 3 far off ; propinquus, -ior, near ; salutaris, healthful, salu- 
tar ior. 

•Anterior, former, and sequior, worse, are found only in the compa- 
rative. 

Nequam, worthless (indeclinable,) has nequior, nequissimus. 

8. Many Adjectives, which are capable of having their sig- 
nification increased, do not admit of comparison : as, 

Albus, white ; almus, gracious ; egenus, needy ; lacer, torn ; memor. 
mindful ; mirus, wonderful ; precox, early ripe ; sospes, safe, &c. 



§ 27 DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. 63 

Participles in -rus and -dus, and Adjectives in -ivus, ~inus, -drus, and 
~imus : B.s,fugitivus, fugitive ; matutinus, early; canorus, shrill j Je- 
gitimus, lawful. 

Adjectives compounded with Nouns and Verbs : as, versicolor, of 
various colors ; degZner, degenerating j pestifer, poisonous, &c. 

Diminutives, which, in themselves, involve a sort of comparison : 
as, tenellus, somewhat tender ; majusculus, somewhat big. 

9. Adjectives, in which a vowel precedes -us, except -quits, form the 
Comparative by putting magis before the Positive ; and the Super- 
lative, by putting valde or maxime before it : as, arduus, high ; ma- 
gis arduus , higher : valde, or maxime arduus, highest, or very high. 



§ 27. DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. 

Derivative Adjectives are formed chiefly from nouns, from 
other adjectives, and from verbs. 

1. Those derived from nouns are called Denominatives. 
They are such as aureus, golden ; capitdlis, capital, relating 
to the life ; puerilis, boyish ; animosus, full of courage, &c. 
from aurum, caput, puer, animus, &c. 

2. Those derived from adjectives are also called denomina- 
tives ; they are chiefly diminutives ; as, dulcicztlus, sweetish ; 
duriusculus, somewhat hard, &c. from dulcis, durus, &c. 

3. Adjectives derived from verbs are called Verbal adjec- 
tives. They commonly end in -bundus, -idus, -bills, -His, 
-itius,2Xid. -ax; as, errabundus, given to wandering; rapt' 
dus, rapid ; credibilis, credible ; flexibilis, easy to be bent ; 

fictitius, feigned ; cap ax, capacious, &c. from erro, rapio, 
credo, fleet o, Jingo, capio, &c. 

4. Participles divested of the idea of time and expressing 
merely a quality, become adjectives, and are capable of com- 
parison; as, amans, fond of ; amantior, amantissimus ; doc- 
tus, learned ; doctior, doctisstmus. These are called parti- 
cipial Adjectives. 

Adjectives are also derived from adverbs and prepositions 5 

as, hodiernus, conirarius, &c. from hodie, contra, &c. 



64 OP PRONOUNS. § 28 

§ 28. OF PRONOUNS. 
A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, 

In Latin there are eighteen simple pronouns, namely, Ego, 
tu, sui; ille, ipse, iste, hie, is, quis, qui; mens, tuus, suns, 
noster, vester; nostras, vestras and cujas. 

Of these, Ego, tu, sui, are substantive or personal pro- 
nouns, the rest are adjectives. 

SUBSTANTIVE OR PERSONAL PRONOUNS, 

The Substantive or Personal pronouns take the gender of 
the noun for which they stand, and are thus declined: 

Ego, I. First Person. M, or F. 
Singular. Plural. 

I, N. nos, We. 

of me 7 G. nostrum, or nostri, of us. 

to me, D. nobis, to us. 

me, Ac. nos, us. 



N. 


e go* 


G. 


mei, 


D. 


mihi, 


Ac 


.me, 


V. 





Ab 


.me. 


N. 


tu, 


G. 


tui, 


D. 


tibi, 


Ac. te, 


V. 


tu, 



with SfC. me. Ab. nobis, with, fyc< us, 

Tu, thou, Second Person, M, or F. 
Singular. Plural. 

thou* or you, N. vos, ye, or you, 

of thou, or of you, G. vestrum, or vestri, of you, 

to thee, or to you, D. vobis, to you, 

thee, or you, Ac. vos, you, 

O thou, or O you, V. vos, O ye, or you, 

Ab. te, with, fyc. thee, or you. Ab. vobis, with fyc. you. 

Sui, of himself, of herself, of itself. Third Person. 
M. F. N. Reflexive. 
Singular. Plural. 

G. sui, of himself, fyc. G. sui, of themselves, 

D. sibi, to himself, tyc. D. sibi, to themselves, 

ilc.se, himself, fyc. Ac. se, themselves. 

Ab. se, with fyc. himself, fyc. Ab. se, with, fyc. themselves. 
* See Note p. 65. 



§ 28 OF PRONOUNS. 65 

Obs. 1. In all speech three things are implied, the person 
speaking, the person spoken to, and the person or thing spo- 
ken of. These are called in Grammar the first, second and 
third persons ; and the pronouns representing them are call- 
ed Personal Pronouns, 

Obs. 2. The pronoun of the first person is Ego, I ; of the 
second Tu, thou or you ; of the third Sui, of himself, of 
herself, of itself. Also the adjective pronouns, ipse, ille, 
iste, is, and hie, without a substantive, in the gender of the 
nouns represented by them, and with the general meaning of 
he, she, it, may be called Substantive or Personal Pronouns. 

Note. — " Thou" and " thee" are used as the rendering of tu and its 
cases in the singular, only in solemn addresses, or to mark special 
emphasis or contempt. In ordinary discourse it is translated by 
" you." See Eng. Gram § 15. 4. 

Obs. 3. The third personal pronouns, though all translated 
by one term in English,* differ from each other in meaning 
and use, as follows : 

1st. Sui is used only in the oblique cases and in a reflexive sense, 
referring to the main subject of the sentence, f and consequently in- 
dicating no change of subject; as, Cato se occldit, " Cato killed him- 
self;" Cato dixit se esse Ccesare feliciorem. " Cato said that he 
(Cato) was more happy than Caesar." — But when the pronoun re- 
fers to another word, and there is consequently a transition from the. 
principle to a subordinate subject, some of the other pronouns ille. 
iste, is, must be used, thus, in the above sentence ; u Cato said that he 
was a happier man than Caesar f if the word " he" did not refer 
to Cato, but to some other person, ilium or eum, and not se would be 
used ; thus, Cato dixit illum, &c. 

Exc. Sui and its corresponding possessive pronoun suus, are some- 

* The want of different pronouns of the third person in English , 
is frequently the cause of ambiguity, which never can occur in Latin 
or Greek. Thus if we say, " Lysias promised his father never to 
abandon his friends ;" it is impossible to tell from this sentence whose 
friends are meant, — whether those of Lysias or of his father. If the 
former, " his" in Latin would be suos; if the latter, " ejus," and if 
the latter in a special manner, " ipsius." 

t The main subject is generally the nominative to the leading verb. 
as in the above examples. Sometimes, however, the construction 
requires it to be in a different case ; as, Ab Antonio admonitus sum 
ut mane sibi adessem; here the leading subject is Antonio in the Abla- 
tive, and to this, of course, sibi refers j so in the following: "Est 
libido homini suo animo obsequi." the principal subject is " homini." 

*6 



66 OF PRONOUNS. § 28 

times used when the reference is not to be primary, but to a subordi« 
nate subject ; but this is never done by good writers when it would 
cause ambiguity. The most common cases of this usage are :— 
1st. When the primary subject is in the first or second person to 
which of course sui, being the third, cannot refer ; as, ilium occldi 
suo gladio, I slew him with his own sword. 2d. After quisque or 
unusquisque j as, suum cuique tribuunt, " they^ give every man his 
own." jM. When the word to which situs refers stands immediate- 
ly or almost immediately before it ; as, hunc cives sui ex urbe ejecerunt; 
- c his fellow citizens banished him from the city," 4th. When the 
noun with which suus agrees is coupled with another by cum; as, eum 
cum suis rebus dimiserunt ; u they dismissed him with his effects. ?> 

2d. Ipse is applicable to any of the three persons, and, — in the no- 
minative case, is used when either the primary or the subordinate 
subject is again introduced with emphasis, in a subsequent or subor- 
dinate clause, or in the next sentence ; as, Lycurgus nihil ulla lege 
in alios sanxit, cujus non ipse primus in se documenta daret : f ! Ly- 
curgus bound nothing by any law upon others, of which he did not 
first give an instance in himself :" here ipse refers to Lycurgus, the 
primary subject. In the following sentence, ipsi refers to the subor- 
nate, and ipse to the principal subject ; Ccesar ad prcefectos — mittii 
qui nuncidrent ne hosies prartio lacessh'ent ; et si ipsi lacesserentur 
sustinerent quoad ipse accessisset. Caesar, IV. 11. 

In the oblique cases, ipse hardly ever refers to the mam subject, 
(this being the proper office of sui,) but to the subordinate when that 
is to be expressed with emphasis, and distinguished from the primary 
or any other subject previously expressed j as, Senatus dixit non sua 
negligigentid sed ipsius {Pompeji,) subito adventu factum. tl The 
senate said that it happened not through any negligence on their part 
but owing to his (Pompey's) sudden arrival." Instances however oc- 
cur in which the oblique cases refer to the principal subject, but 
these are rare, and such as to create no ambiguity. 

3d. Ille, iste, is, and hie, in all genders are used as pronouns, of the 
third person, and are all rendered he, she, or it, as the word which 
they represent may require. In the nominative they are applicable 
equally to the main or to the subordinate subject. But in the ob- 
lique cases, with few exceptions, they refer to the subordinate only. 
Ille means he, referring to a person at a distance from the speaker ; 
hie means he, referring to a person near the speaker ; iste means he. 
denoting a person near to, or mentioned by, the person spoken to ; is 
means he, in a more general way, and very often designates a persor 



§ 29 OF ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 67 

or thing not previously mentioned, but which is described in a suc« 
ceeding clause with the relative. These distinctions may be illus- 
trated thus : 

Ille venit, he (the person formerly spoken of,) has come. 

Iste venit, he (the person of whom you spoke,) has come. 

Is venit, he has come. 

Hie venit, he (the person present or just^spoken of,) has come, 

In the use of these pronouns, however, these distinctions are not 
always strictly observed ; Ille and is, especially are often used indis- 
criminately, and in the same sentence apparently for the sake of 
Euphony or variety of expression. 

Iste is often used as an expression of worthlessness or contempt. 

Obs. 4. The personal pronouns are rendered emphatic by an- 
nexing the definite ipse, and the syllable -met or -te separate- 
ly or variously combined ; as, ego ipse, egomet, tute, nosme- 
tipsi, &c. Se the accusative and ablative of sui is often dou- 
bled, as sese. When the preposition cum is used with the 
ablative of the personal pronouns, it is commonly annexed; 
as, mecum, tecum, secum, nobiscum, &c. 

Obs. 5. In the accusative plural with inter, or after an active verb 
with invicem, se is used as a reciprocal pronoun,* as, Fratres inter se 
similes, u Brothers like each other." Brutus et Aruns se invicem oc- 
ciderunt, u Brutus and Aruns slew each other. v 



§ 29. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

Adjective Pronouns are declined with three 
genders, to agree with their substantives in these 
accidents. 

Adjective Pronouns may be divided into Pos- 
sessive, Demonstrative, Definite, Relative, Interroga- 
tive, Indefinite, and Patriot. 



§ 30. I. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 

The Possessive Pronouns are derived from the 
Substantive as follows : 



Meus, 


-a 


•urn, 


Tuus, 


-a 


•urn, 


Suus, 


•a 


•um, 


Noster, 


•ra 


-rum. 


Vester, 


-ra 


•rum. 



68 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. § 31 

my, my own. from ego. 

thy, thy own, M tu. 

his. her % its, his own, 4rc. u sui. 
our, our own, " nos. 

your, your own, ll vos 

Obs. 1. In signification, Possessive Pronouns correspond 
to the genitive of their primitives, for which they may be 
considered as a substitute ; thus, f rater mei, " the brother of 
me," and meus f rater, " my brother," mean the same thing, 
and hence they may often be rendered as the genitive ; as, 
suo populique Romani benefieio, " by the kindness of himself, 
and of the Roman people." Cass. 

Obs. 2. In form they are regular adjectives of the first and 
second declension. Meus, tuus and suus are declined like 
bonus, § 20. 1 5 except that meus has mi, seldom meus, in the 
vocative singular masculine. Noster and Vester are declin- 
ed like ater, § 20. 3. 

Obs. 3. Suus like its primitive sui, (§ 28. Exc.) is used in a reflex- 
ive sense, referring to the subject of the main verb in the sentence, 
and must be rendered into English in the gender and number of that 
subject without regard to the noun with which it stands ; thus, suam 
rem familiar em perdiderunt , u they squandered their property ;" here 
suam, though singular, to agree with rem, must be rendered" their, " 
because it refers to the plural subject of perdiderunt. Ilia suos fra- 
tres dilexit. u she loved her brothers." 

When the reference is not to the subject of the main verb but to 
some other third person the possessive is expressed in Latin, not by 
suus, but by the genitives of ille, ipse, iste ) is and hie, thus, ejus rem 
familiar em rapuerunt, " they plundered his property." Suos amlcos 
amat, means " he loves his own friends j w ejus amlcos amat, is " he 
loves his friends," meaning (not his own, but) the friends of some 
other person to whom ejus refers. 



§ 31. II. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Demonstrative Pronouns are such as point 
out with precision a person or thing already known. 

They are, hie, this 5 ille, iste, is. that. They are declined 
as follows : 



I 31 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Hie, hjec, hoc, this; Plural these. 



69 



Singular, 




Plural. 


M. F. 


N. M. 


F. N. 


IV. hie, hsec, 


hoc, -JV. hi, 


has, hgec, 


G. hujus, hujus, 


hujus, G, horum 


, harum, horum, 


D. huic, huic, 


huic, D. his, 


his, his, 


Ac. hunc, hanc, 


hoc, Ac. hos, 


has, hsec, 


V. hie, haec. 


hoc, V. hi, 


has, heec, 


i!5. hoc, hac, 


hoc. Ah, his, 


his, his. 


Ille, illa, illud, that; Plural those, 


Singula?', 




Plural. 


M. R 


N. M. 


F. N. 


JV. ille, ilia, 


illud, IV. illi, 


illas, illa, 


G. illius, illius, 


illius,* G. illorum, illarum, illorum, 


D. illi, illi, 


illi, D. illis, 


illis, illis, 


Ac. ilium, illam. 


illud, Ac. illos, 


illas, illa, 


V. ille, illa, 


illud, V, illi, 


illse, illa, 


Ah. illo, illa, 


illo. -4J. illis, 


illis, illis, 


Iste, 


that; is declined like ille. 


Is, ea, id, that; Plural, 


those. 


Singular 




Plural. 


M. F. 


N. M. 


F. N. 


IV. is, ea, 


id, IV. ii, 


ea>, ea, 


G. ejus, ejus, 


ejus, G, eorum, earum, eorum, 


D. ei', ei, 


ei', D. iis,orei's,iis,oreis, iisoreis 


Ac, eum, earn, 
V. — — 
Ah, eo, ea, 


id, Ac. eos, 
— V. — 
eo. Ah. iis,or< 


eas, ea, 


3is, iis,or ei's, iis,or eis 


From es and the syllable -dem is formed ?^ew, eadem, idem, 


" £Ae same" which 


is thus declined : 
Singular. 




M. 


F. 


N. 


JV. idem, 


eadem, 


idem, 


G. ejusdem, 


ejusdem, 


ejusdem, 


D. eidem, 


eidem, 


eidem, 


Ac. eundem, 


eandem, 


idem, 


V. Idem, 


eadem, 


idem, 


Ah. eodem, 


eadem, 


eodem. 




• See § 20. Note- 





70 THE DEFINITE PRONOUN. § 31 







Plural. 




M. 




F. 


N. 


N. iidem, 




eaedem, 


eadem, 


G. eorundem, 




earundem, 


eorundem, 


D. eisdem, or 


iisdem 


&c. 




Ac. eosdem. 




easdern, 


eadem. 


V. iidem, 




eaedem, 


eadem, 



Ab. eisdem, or iisdem, &c. 

Obs. 1. When two persons or things are spoken of, ille 
refers to the former, hie to the latter. When three are spo- 
ken of, ille refers to the first, hie, to the last, and iste to the 
intermediate. 

Obs. 2. Hie means " this," referring to something near 
the speaker or just spoken of. Ille " that," refers to some- 
thing at a distance or before spoken of. Iste " that," refers 
to something near, or belonging to, or some way connected 
with the person spoken to. Is, " that," is less precise in 
its reference than the other demonstratives, being not confin- 
ed to something known or already spoken of, but is often 
used to point out that which is to be farther described ; as, 
ed legione quam secum habebat, " with that legion which he 
had with him." 

When followed by ut or qui, is has the sense of talis 
41 such ;" as,Neque enim tu is es, qui (or ut) quid sis neseias, 
"neither art thou such a one as to be ignorant of what you 
are." With que it gives emphasis to the clause to which it 
refers; thus, idque " and that too," " especially," equivalent 
to the Greek '" km rccurcc." 

Obs. 3. Hie, and some cases of the other demonstratives, 
are rendered emphatic by adding ce ; as, hicce, hujusce, 
huncce, &c. W r hen ue interrogative is also added, ce is chang- 
ed into ci; as hiccine, hoscine, &c. 

Obs. 4. From ille and iste with hie, are formed the com- 
pounds illic and isthic or istic, used in some of the cases for 
ille and iste, but with greater emphasis. 
Istic is thus declined, 



Singular. 




Plural. 




M. F. 


N. 


M. F. 


N. 


N. istic, istsec, 
Ac. istunc, istanc, 


istoc, 
istunc, 


*• ] 

Ac. S 


istaec* 


Ab. istoc, istac, 


istoc. 







Illic is declined in the same manner. 



§38 RELATIVE PRONOUN. 71 

§ 32. III. THE DEFINITE PRONOUN. 

The Definite Pronoun ipse is used to give a clo- 
ser or more definite signification of a person or 
thing; as, Ad ipsam port am accessit, "he came up 
to the gate itself;" or " the very gate." It is thus 
declined : 



Singular. 



Plural. 





M. 


F. 


N. 




M. 


F, 


N. 


N. 


ipse. 


ipsa, 


ipsum, 


N. 


ipsi, 


ipsae, 


ipsa, 


G. 


ipsius, 


ipsms, 


ipsius, 


G. 


ipsorum,ipsarum, ipsorum 


D. 


ipsi, 


ipsi, 


ipsi, 


D. 


ipsis, 


ipsis, 


ipsis, 


Ac. 


ipsum, 


ipsam, 


ipsum, 


Ac, 


. ipsos, 


ipsas. 


ipsa, 


v: 








V. 








Ab 


. ipso, 


ipsa, 


ipso. 


Ab, 


, ipsis, 


ipsis. 


ipsis. 



§ 33. IV. RELATIVE PRONOUN. 

The Relative Pronoun is one that relates to 
a noun or pronoun going before it, called the an- 
tecedent. It is thus declined. 

Qui, quje, quod, who, which, thai. 



Singular. 





M. 


F. 


N. 
G. 


qui, 

cujus, 

cui, 


quae, 

cujus, 

cui, 


Ac 
V. 


, quern, 


quam. 


Ab 


.quo, 


qua, 



Plural. 
F. 



N. 



N. M. 

quod, N. qui, quae, quag, 

cujus, G. quorum, quarum, quorum, 

cui, D. queis, or quibus, &c. 

quod, Ac. quos, quas, quae, 

V. 

quo. Ab. queis, or quibus, &c. 



For the construction of the relative, see § 99. 

Ohs. 1. Qui is sometimes used for the ablative singular in 



72 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN. § 34 

all genders, seldom for the plural. To all forms of the Ab- 
lative, cum is frequently annexed ; as, quocum, quibuscum, &c. 

Obs. 2. Quicunque, or quicumque and quivis, also used as 
relatives (§ 99, Obs. 7.) are declined like qui. 



§ 34. V. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN. 

The Interrogative Pronoun is used in asking 
a question; as, quis fecit? " who did it ?" 

The interrogatives are, 

Quis? L,)i fl > 4 «w? Ecquis? ) 

Quisnam ? $ wno ' wnai ' Ecquisnam ? S is any one ? 

Cujas ? of what country ? 
The simple interrogative quis, is thus declined. 

Quis, qvje, quod, or quid? Who? which? what? 
Singular. Plural. 

M. F. N. M. F. N. 

N, quis, quae, quod, orquid,IV. qui, quae, quae, 

£> cujus,cujus, cujus, G. quorum, quarum, quorum, 

D. cui, cui, cui, D. queis, or quibus, &c. 

Ac. quem,quam, quod, or quid, Ac. quos, quas, quae, 

Ab. quo, qua, quo. Ab. queis, or quibus, &c. 

For the inflection of the compound interrogatives, see § 37. 2, 

Obs. 1. All interrogative pronouns used in a dependent 
clause and without a question are indefinites, § 35, as, 
nescio quis sit, " I know not who he is." In this sense, qui 
is often used for quis; as, qui sit aperit, u he shews who 
he is.' 7 So also such adjectives as quantus, qudlis, &c. 

Obs. 2. Quod in the neuter gender, as an adjective, com- 
monly agrees with its noun ; as, quod beneficium est in hoc? 
" what kindness is in this ?" Quid, as a substantive, common- 
ly governs its noun in the genitive ; as, quid beneficii est in 
hoc ? 



§ 35, 36, 37. of pronouns. 73 

Obs. 3, Cujus, -a, ~um, " whose," used instead of the ge- 
Bitive of quis is defective. The parts in use are as follows : 
Singula?'. Plural. 

M. F. N. 

N. cujus, cuja, cujum, 

Ac. cujum, cujam, — — 

Ab. c^ja, 

Obs. 4. Cujas, " of what country," is declined like an 
adjective of one termination, § 21. L Nom. cujas, Gen. cu- 
jatis, &c. 



M. 


F. 


N. cuji, 
Ac. 


cujse, 
cujas. 



§ 35. VI. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS, 

The Indefinite Pronouns are such as denote 
persons or things indefinitely, without indicating 
a particular individual. Besides the interrogative® 
used indefinitely, they are, 

Aliquis, some one, Quispiam, some one. 

Siquis, if any one. Unusquisque, each one. 

Nequis, lest any, no one. Quidam, a certain one. 

Quisque, each one, every one. Quilitot, > , 

Quisquam, any one. Quivis, $ any one ym P lea8e > 

For the inflection of these, see § 37. L2.3. 



§ 36. VII. PATRIAL PRONOUNS. 

The Patrial Pronouns are those which have reference to 
one's country. They are nostras, " of our country; " ves- 
tras, " of your country." They are both adjectives of one 
termination. Nom. nostras, Gen. nostratis, &c. § 21. I. 



§ 37. COMPOUND PRONOUNS. 

The compound pronouns all belong to some of the classes 
above enumerated, 

7 



74 



OP PRONOUNS. 



§37 



In the compounds of qui and quis, qui is always the first 
part 5 quis is sometimes the first part and sometimes the last 
part of the word compounded. 

1. The compounds of qui are quicunque, "whosoever;" 
quidam, "some;" quilibet, quivis, "anyone," "whom you 
please." They are declined by adding the termination to 
the different cases and numbers of qui; thus. 





Quicunque, whosoever, ivhatsoever. 




IVL 


Singular, 
F. 


N. 


N. 
G. 


quicunque, 
cujuscunque. 


quaecunque, 
cujuscunque, 

Plural, 


quodcunque, 
cujuscunque, &c. 


N. 
G. 


quicunque, 
quorumcunqi 


quaecunque, 
te. quarumcunque. 

So, 


quaecunque, 
quorumcunque. &c 




Quidam, 
Quilibet, 
Quivis, 


quasdam, quoddam, or quiddam. 
quaelibet, quodlibet, or quidlibet. 
quasvis, quodvis, or quidvis. 



Note. — Before -dam, m is changed into n ; as, quendam, quorun- 
dam, &c. 

2. The compounds of quis, when quis is put first, are quis- 
nam, "who?" quispia?n, quisquam, "any one;" quisque, 
" every one ;" and quisquis, " w T hosoever." 



M. 

JV. quisnam, 
G, cujusnam, 
D, cuinam, 
Ac, quemnam, 

V. 

Ab, quonaro, 



Quisnam, who, which, what ? 
Singular. 
F. N. 

quasnam, quodnam, or quidnam, 

cujusnam, cujusnam, 

cuinam, cuinam, 

quamnam, quodnam, or quidnam, 

quanam, quonam. 



§37 



OF PRONOUNS. 



75 



Plural. 
qusenam, 
quarumnam, 
quibusnam, 
quasnam, 



quasnam, 
quorumnam, 
quibusnam, 
quasnam, 



JY. quinam, 
&. quorumnam, 
D. quibusnam, 
Ac. quosnam, 

F. 

Ab. quibusnam, quibusnam, quibusnam 

So decline, 
qusepiam, quodpiam, or quidpiam. 



Quispiam, 
Quisquam, 
Quisque, 
Quisquis, 



qusequam, quodquam, orquidquam* 
qugeque, quodque, or quidque. 
quidquid, or quicquid. 



Obs. 1. Quisquam has quenquam in the accusative, with- 
out the feminine. The plural is scarcely used \ quicque is 
also used for quidque. Quisquis has no feminine termination 
except in the Ablative, and the Neuter only in the Nomina- 
tive and Accusative. The following are the parts in use, 
Singular. 



N. 

quidquid, or quicquid, 
quidquid, or quicquid , 
quoquo. 

Dat. 



quiqui 



and 



quibusqui- 



M. 

JV. quisquis, — 

Ac. quemquem, — 

Ab. quoquo, quaqua, 

The Plural has Nbm. Masc. 
bus. Quisquis is sometimes used for the feminine. 

3. The compounds of quis when quis is put last, have qua 
in the Nom. Sing. Fern, and in the Nom. and Accusative Plu- 
ral Neuter. These are, 

Aliquis, some, Numquis, whether any? 

Ecquis, whether any ? Siquis. if any. 

Nequis, lest any. 
The last three are often written separately ; as, ne quis, 
num quis, si quis. These pronouns are thus declined : 

Singular. 
M. F. N. 

N. aliquis, aliqua, aliquod, or aliquid, 

G. alicujus, alicujus, alicujus, 

D. alicui, alicui, alicui, 

Ac. aliquem, aliquam, aliquod, or aliquid, 

V. aliquis, aliqua, aliquod, or aliquid, 

Ab. aliqud. aliqua, aliquo. 



76 



> 


OF THE VERB. 


§38 




Plural 




M. 


F. 


N. 


N. aliqui, 


aliquse. 


aliqua, 


G. aliquorum, 


aliquarum, 


aliquorum, 


D. aliquibus, 


aliquibus, 


aliquibus, 


Ac. aliquos, 


aliquas, 


aliqua, 


V. aliqui, 


aliquse, 


aliqua, 


Ab. aliquibus, 


aliquibus, 


aliquibus. 



Note. Ecquis and siquis have sometimes qua in the nominative 
singular feminine. 

Obs. 2. Some of these are twice compounded ; as, ecquis- 
nam, ecqucenam, ecquodnam, or ecquidnam, "who?" unus- 
guisque, unaqucsque, unumquodque, or unumquidque, " every 
one;" Gen. uniuscujusque, &c. The former is scarcely de- 
clined beyond the Nom. Sing, and the latter wants the Plural. 

Obs. 3. All these compounds want the vocative, except 
/uisque, aliquis, quilibet and quicunque. They have seldom 
if ever quels, but quibus in the Dative and Ablative Plural. 



§ 38. OF THE VERB. 

A Verb is a word that expresses an action or 

state. 

Obs. 1. The use of the verb in simple propositions is to 
affirm. That of which it affirms is called its subject, and, if 
a noun or pronoun, is usually in the nominative case. But 
when the verb is in the infinitive, its subject is put in the 
accusative. 

1. Verbs are of two kinds, Active and Neuter, 
or as they are sometimes called, Transitive and 
Intransitive.* 

* According to this division, active verbs include those only which 
express transitive action ; and neuter verbs those which do not. 
These two classes would be more appropriately denominated Transi- 
tive and Intransitive, reserving the word " active" as the appropri- 
ate designation of the form called the active voice. But as the terms 
active and neuter may now be regarded as established by common 
consent, and are sufficiently understood, little would be gained by de- 
parting from the common usage, especially as in this instance, it leads 
to no practical error. 



I 38 OF THE VERBv 77 

2, Active or Transitive verbs express an act 
done by one person or thing to another. In Latin 
they have two forms, called the Active and Pas- 
sive Voice, § 41. 

3. Neuter or Intransitive verbs express be- 
ing or a state of being. They are commonly 
without the passive form. 

Obs. 2. The verbs that express being simply in Latin are 
sum,fio, existo, signifying in general "to be," or "exist." 
The state of being expressed by neuter verbs may be a state 
of rest ; as, dormio, I sleep ; or of motion ; as, cado, I fall ; 
or of action ; as, curro, I run. 

Obs. 3. The action expressed by a neuter verb is always 
intransitive, i. e. it does not like the action expressed by an 
active verb, pass over, from the agent or actor to an object. 
It has no immediate relation to any thing beyond its subject, 
which it represents in a certain state or condition, and noth- 
ing more ; and hence the active and neuter verb may always 
be distinguished thus : an active verb always requires an ob- 
ject to complete the sense ; as, amo te, " I love thee." The 
neuter verb does not, but the sense is complete without such 
an object; as, sedeo, "I sit;" curro, "I run." 

Obs. 4. Many verbs considered neuter in Latin are trans- 
lated by verbs considered active in English; as, placeo, "I 
please;" obedio, "I obey;" credo, " I believe ;" &c. 

Obs. 5. Many verbs are used sometimes in an active, and 
sometimes in a neuter sense. Such are fugio, inclino, timeo, 
&c; &s,fuge dextrum littus, (active) "avoid the right hand 
shore," tempus fugit, (neut.) " time flies ;" timeo Danaos, 
'Idread the Greeks." (active) timeo, "I am afraid" (neut.) 

Obs. 6. Verbs usually neuter assume an active significa- 
tion when a word of similar signification with the verb itself 
is introduced as its object ; as, vivere vitam, " to live a life ;" 
jurare jusjurandum, "to swear an oath." 

Obs. 7. When we wish to direct the attention not so much 
to any particular act of the subject of discourse, as to the 
employment or state of that subject, the object of the act not 
being important, is omitted, and the active verb assumes the 
character of a neuter verb ; thus in the sentence, puer legit , 

7* 



78 OF THE VERB. § 39 

•'the boy reads ;" nothing more is indicated than the present 
state or employment of puer, "the boy," and the verb has 
obviously a neuter sense: Still an object is necessarily im- 
plied, as he who reads must read something. But when we 
say pue?* legit Homerum, "the boy reads Homer," the at- 
tention is directed to a particular act, terminating on a certain 
object, " Homerum" and the verb has its proper active 
sense. 



§ 39. DIFFERENT KINDS OF VERBS. 

Though the Division of Verbs into active and neuter, com- 
prehends all the verbs in any language, yet from something 
peculiar in their form or signification, they are characterized 
by different names, expressive of this peculiarity. The most 
common of these are the following, viz: Regular, Irregular, 
Deponent, Common, Defective, Impersonal, Redundant, Fre- 
quentative, Inceptive^ and Desiderative. 

1. Regular Verbs are those in which the se- 
condary parts are formed from the primary, accord- 
ing to certain rules. § 51. 

Note. — Under these are included Active, Neuter, Deponent and Com- 
mon verbs belonging to the four conjugations. 

2. Irregular Verbs are those in which some 
of the secondary parts are not formed from the pri- 
mary, according to rule. § 83. 

3. Deponent Verbs under a passive form have 
an active or neuter signification. § 72. 

4. Common Verbs under a passive form have 
an active or passive signification. § 72. 

5. Defective Verbs want some of their parts. 
§84. 

6. Impersonal Verbs are used only in the third 
person singular. § 85. 



§ 40 THE VERB. INFLECTION* 79 

7. Redundant Verbs have more than one form 
of the same part. § 87. 

8. Frequentative Verbs express repeated ac- 
tion. § 88. 1. 

9. Inceptive Verbs mark the beginning or con- 
tinued increase of an action. § 88. 2. 

10. Desiderative Verbs denote desire or in- 
tention of doing. § 88. 3. The three last are al- 
ways derivatives. § 88. 



§ 40. INFLECTION OF VERBS. 

To the inflection of Verbs belong Voices, 
Moods, Tenses, Numbers, and Persons. 

1. The Voices in Latin are two, Active and 
Passive. 

2. The Moods are four, the Indicative, Subjunc- 
tive, Imperative and Infinitive. 

3. The Tenses are six, the Present, Imperfect, 
Perfect, Pluperfect, Future and Future-Perfect. 

4. The Numbers are two, Singular and Plural. 

5. The Persons are three, First, Second and 
Third. 

6. Besides these, to the Verb belong Partici- 
ples, Gerunds and Supines. 

7. The Conjugation of a verb is the arrange- 
ment of its different moods, tenses, &c. according 
to a certain order. Of these, in Latin, there are 
four, called the First, Second, Third and Fourth 
Conjugations. §51. 



80 THE VERB. — VOICE. § 41 

Obs. A few verbs in Latin are of more than one conjuga- 
tion, and a few have some of their parts belonging to one 
conjugation, and others to another. 



§ 41. OF VOICE. 

Voice is a particular form of the verb which 
shews the relation of the subject or thing spoken 
of, to the action expressed by the verb. 

The active verb, in Latin, has two voices, call- 
ed the Active and Passive. 

1 . The Active Voice represents the subject of 
the verb as acting on some object; as, amo te, "I 
love thee. 55 

2. The Passive Voice represents the subject of 
the verb as acted upon; as, amatur, "he is lov- 
ed. 5 ' 

Obs. 1. In both voices the act expressed by the verb is the 
same, but differently related to the subject of the verb. In 
the active voice the subject is the actor 5 in the passive, it is 
acted upon, as in the above examples. Hence the same idea 
may be expressed with equal propriety in either voice, by 
simply changing the object of the active voice into the subject 
of the passive, thus, by the active voice, Ccesar vlcit Gral- 
Ham, " Caesar conquered Gall ;" by the passive, Gallia victa 
est a Ccesar e , " Gall was conquered by Caesar. 

This property of the active verb enables the speaker or 
writer not only to vary his form of expression at pleasure, 
but also by means of the passive form, to direct the attention 
to the act and the object acted upon when the actor either is 
unknown, or, it may be, unimportant or improper to be men- 
tioned. Thus, " America was discovered and inhabited be- 
fore the days of Columbus." So also the attention may be 
directed by means of the active voice to the act and the actor, 
without regard to the object. See § 38. Obs. 7. 

Obs. 2. Neuter Verbs from their signification do not admit 



§ 42 THE VERB. MOODS. 81 

a distinction of voice. They are generally in the form of the 
active voice, but are frequently used in the third person 
singular, passive form, as impersonal verbs. § 85. 3. Depo- 
nent neuter verbs, however, have the form of the passive. 

Obs. 3. The passive voice in Latin is often used in a sense 
similar to the middle voice in Greek, to express actively 
what its subject does to, or for itself; as, donee pauci, qui 
prcelio superfuerant, paludibus abderentur^ "till the few who 
had survived the battle concealed themselves in the marshes." 
Tac. The following are examples of the same kind. Co- 
lumba—fertur in arva volans, Virg. — Nunc spicula ver- 
tunt infensi; facta pari ternunc pace feruntur. Id — E scopic- 
lo multd vix arte revolsus — ratem Sergestus aglbat. Id — 
Quis ignorat, ii, qui mathematici vocantur, in quanta obscu- 
rztate rerum — versentur. Cic. — Cum igitur vehementius 
inveherettcr in causam principum consul Philippus. Id.- — 
Cum ornnes in omni genere scelerum volutentur. Id. 

Circumdat nequidquam humeris, et inutile ferrum, 
Cingitur, ac densos fertur moriturus in hostes. Virg, 
In all such constructions the words " a se" may be under- 
stood after the verb. 



• 

§ 42. OF MOODS. 

Mood is the mode or manner of expressing the 
signification of the verb. 

Obs. 1. That which is actual and certain is sometimes ex- 
pressed by the subjunctive mood, but in that case the clause 
expressing it is dependent; as, nescit quis sim, " he knows 
not who I am" 

The moods in Latin are four ; namely, the In- 
dicative, Subjunctive, Imperative and Infinitive. 

I, The Indicative Mood expresses what is act- 
ual and certain, in an absolute and independent 
manner; as, amo, "I love." 

II. The Subjunctive Mood is never used to 



82 THE VERB. — MOODS. § 42 

express an absolute and independent assertion, 
but it is used — 

1st. To express a thing in a subordinate clause, 
dependent upon a preceding verb expressed or un- 
derstood, and connected with it by an adverb, con- 
junction, or indefinite term ; as, 

Nescit quis sim, " he knows not who I am. v Si redeat videbimus, 
11 if he return we shall see him," &c. Accidit ut terga verterent, ci it 
happened that they turned their backs." 

O bs. 2. Thus used the Subjunctive is rendered by the Eng- 
lish indicative or subjunctive ; as, Indie, lego, " I read," 
Subj. quod legam, " because I read ;" Indie, omnes eum ama- 
verunt, all men loved him; Subj. adeo benevolus erat ut om- 
nes eum amarent, " he was so kind that all men loved him;" 
See Eng. Gr. § 22. Obs 2. 

2d. It is used potentially to express a thing not 
as actual and certain, but contingent and hypotheti- 
cal, that is, not as what does, or did, or certain- 
ly will take place, but as what may, can, might, or 
should take place in certain circumstances. 

In other words, it does not assert th% positive action or 
state of its subject, but only the liberty, power, will, or duty 
of the subject with respect to the action expressed by the 
verb ; as, legerem si necesse esset, " I would read if it were 
necessary." 

Obs. 3. In the first of these senses, this mood is strictly 
subjunctive and corresponds to the subjunctive mood in Eng- 
lish, though commonly translated by the indicative. In the 
second sense it is evidently potential, and is translated by the 
English potential mood, implying, in the present, the sense of 
may, can, shall, will ; and in the preterite tenses, the sense of 
might, could, should, would ; as, amem, " I may or can 
love," quisquam Junonis numen adoret, " will any one 
adore," &c. Ccesar nascetur, famam qui terminet astris, 
u Ccesar — who shall or will bound," &c. 

Obs. 4. This mood is often used in an optative and also in 
an imperative sense j as, utinam saperes, " O that thou wert 
wise ;" quod bene vert at, " may it turn out well $" sic eat, 
" thus let her go ;" facias, " do it." See Obs. 5. 



§ 42 THE VERB. — MOODS. 88 

Obs. 5. When this mood is used in a potential, optative or 
imperative sense, still it ought to be regarded as strictly sub- 
junctive, having the primary or leading clause evidently un- 
derstood, on which the meaning of the mood in each case de- 
pends. Thus, "I may write," licet mihi ut, or est ufrscri- 
bam, " I shall, or will write $" futurum est, or erit ut scri- 
bam, " I should write ;" oportet, cequum est ut, or est cur scribe- 
rem, "I should have written 5" oportebat, &c. ut scripsissem, 
" O that they were wise 5" per op to utinam saperent \ " may 
it turn out well ;" precor quod bene vert at, " do it ;" fac ut 
facias, "let me do it 5" sine ut faciam, &c. 

Hence it follows that the particular English auxiliary by 
which this mood should be translated, depends, not upon the 
form of the Latin verb, seeing scriberem for example means 
equally, "I might, could, would, or should write," but upon 
the ellipsis to be supplied. What this is, must always be 
gathered from the connexion and sense of the passage, 

Obs. 6. From these observations it will be manifest that 
the Latin subjunctive is in much more extensive use than 
either the subjunctive and potential mood in English, or the 
subjunctive and optative mood in Greek. Indeed, the pro- 
per use and management of this mood, constitutes one of the 
greatest difficulties in this language. For the construction 
of this mood, see §#139. 

Obs. 7. When the ideas of liberty, power, will, obligation, 
duty, &c. involved in the auxiliaries may, can, will, shall, 
might, could, would, should, &c. are to be expressed in an 
absolute, independent, and emphatic manner, the subjunctive 
mood is not used, but separate verbs expressing these ideas 
in the indicative mood. These are such as licet, volo, nolo, 
possum, debeo, &c. thus : 

" We will go," Ire volumus. 

"They will not go," Ire nolunt. 

"I may come," Mihi venire licet. 

"I can read," Legere possum. 

( Legere debes. 
"Thou shouldst read," } Ttbi legendum est. 

( Te legere oportet. 
"It might have been done," i 
(absolutely and sometimes > Fieri potuii. 

contingently. ) 1 



84 THE VERB. TENSES. § 43 

Obs. 8. The future indicative is frequently used in depend- 
ent and hypothetical clauses, and consequently in a subjunc- 
tive sense 5 as, si jubebis faciam, " if you order me, I will 
do it;" equivalent to si jubeas, &c. 

III. The Imperative Mood commands, exhorts, 
entreats, or permits; as, scribe, " write thou;" 
itOy " let him go." 

Obs. 9. The present subjunctive is very often used instead 
of the imperative, especially in forbidding, after ne, nemo? 
nullus, &c. as, Valeas, " farewell ;" ne noceas puero, " hurt 
not the boy ;" No, 4 and 5. Besides this, the future and fu- 
ture perfect indicative, and the perfect subjunctive are also 
used imperatively. See § 44. V. 1, and VI. 3. § 45. III. 4, 

IV. The Infinitive Mood expresses the meaning 
of the verb in a general manner, without any dis- 
tinction of person or number ; as, scribere, " to 
write;" scripsisse, " to have written ;" scribi, "to 
be written." 



§ 43. OF THE TENSES. 

Tenses are certain forms of the verb which 
serve to point out the distinctions of time. 

Time is naturally divided into the Present, Past and Fu- 
ture, and an action may be represented either as incomplete 
and continuing, or, as completed at the time spoken of. 
This gives rise to six tenses, which are expressed in Latin by 
distinct forms of the verb, thus : 

p ( Action continuing; as, scribo, "I write, I am writing," Present. 

rRESEN1 ( Action completed; as, scrips*', "I have written." Perfect. 

p J Action continuing; as, scribebam, " I was writing." Imperf. 

I Action completed; as, scripser am, " I had written." Pluperf. 

p < Action continuing ; as, scriham, u I shall or will write." Future. 

ruTURE j A C tion completed; as, scripsero, "I shall have written." Fut-perf. 

In order better to express the time and the state of the ac- 
tion by one designation, these tenses in the above order might 
be properly denominated the Present, the Present-perfect, 



§ 44 THE VERB. SENSES. 85 

the Past, the Past -perfect; the Future, and the Future-per- 
fect. 



§ 44. TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD, 

The Tenses of the indicative mood in Latin are 
six ; the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the 
Pluperfect, the Future, and the Future-perfect. 

I. The Present tense expresses what is going 
on at the present time; as, scribo, "I write, or 
"I am writing;" domus adiftcatur, "the house is 
building. 

This tense is rendered with all the variety of the present 
tense in English; as, I write, do write, am writing; interro- 
gatively ; do I write? am I writing? Like the English pre- 
sent also it is used. 

1 . to express what is habitual or always true $ as qui cito 
dat, bis dat, "he who gives promptly gives twice." 

2. To express a general custom, if still existing ; as, Apud 
Parthos signum datur tympana. ** Among the Parthians the 
signal is given by the drum." 

S. In historical narration it is used with great effect for 
the past tense, to represent the past event as it were present 
before us ; thus, Livy, Die to parutre, desiliunt ex equis, pro- 
volant in primum, &c. "They obeyed, they dismount, they 
fly forward to the front," &c. 

4. To denote an action which has continued for some time 
and which still exists ; as, Tot annos bella gero, " For so many 
years I have waged, and am still waging war." 

5. With certain adverbs of time, it is sometimes used, as 
in English, to denote w^hat is yet future $ as Quam mox nam* 
go Ephesum, " as soon as I sail, or shall sail, for Ephesus." 

6. In the passive voice, the present tense represents its 
subject as at present acted upon, or as the object of an action 
present and continuing, and is usually rendered into English 
by the verb to be, and the perfect participle, as amatur, " he 
is loved," and this rendering will often be correct. 

S 



86 THE VERB. TENSES. § 44 

Obs. There are many -verbs however, in which this rendering of the 
present would be incorrect, as it does not express the present receiv- 
ing of an action, but rather the present and continuing effect of an 
act, which act itself is now past. In all such cases it is more pro* 
perly the rendering of the perfect , than of the present and is often so 
used. Thus doinus cedificata est; opus peractum est; epistola scripta 
est, may be properly rendered " the house is built ;" " the work is 
finished j" " the letter is written ; v because in the English, as well as 
in Latin, the building of the house, the finishing of the work, and the 
writing of the letter, are represented as acts now past, and which 
are present only in their effects. The proper rendering of such -verbs 
in the present passive, is by the verb to be, and the present par- 
ticiple in >ing in the passive sense; thus, domus cedificatur. " The 
house is building;" opus peragitur, " the work is finishing :" epistola 
scribitur, " the letter is writing." When this mode of expression is not 
authorised, and when the other would be improper, it will be necessa- 
ry to express the precise idea of the present by some other form of 
expression ; thus, dux vulneratur strictly means, " the general is now 
receiving a wound," and should be so rendered. We cannot say u the 
general is wounded," because that implies that the act of wounding 
is past, as in the above examples. Neither can we say, " the general 
is wounding," because the participle " wounding," according to Eng- 
lish usage has not a passive sense. The mode of forming a present 
passive by such expressions as, " the house is being built," " the work 
is being done," " the general is being wounded," is a recent and 
clumsy innovation. On examination it will be found as incorrect as 
it is barbarous and inelegant, and should therefore be avoided. See 
English Gram. § 31. 

II. The Imperfect tense represents an action or 
event as passing and still unfinished at a certain 
time past, expressed or implied ; as, Domum adijica- 
bat, " he was (then) building a house. 35 Ibam 
forte via sacra, "I was accidentally (viz. at the 
time spoken of,) going along" the via sacra. 

This tense corresponds to the English imperfect definite., 
Eng. Gr. § 24. II. It is, however, often used indefinitely, and 
hence it is rendered by all the variety that belongs to that 
tense in English ; as, scribebam, (indefinite) " I wrote, did 
write;" (definite) " I was writing ;" (interrogatively) " did 
I write ? was I writing?" Besides 



§ 44 THE VERB. TENSES. 87 

1. It is used to denote what was usual or customary at 
some past time ; as, scribebam, " I was accustomed to write," 
Nonunquam equo, scepius pedtbus tbat, " It was his custom 
sometimes to ride, more frequently to walk." 

2. It is used to denote an action which had existed for some 
time and was still existing at a certain past time ; as, Tot an- 
nos bella gereham, "For so many years I had been, and then 
still was waging war." 

3. It is sometimes used hypothetically instead of the im- 
perfect subjunctive ; as, Anceps certamen erat, nisi equites 
supervenissenl, " the battle would have been doubtful," &c. 

4. The same observations made in I. 6. and Obs. in reference 
to the present passive, are applicable in all their extent to the 
imperfect; as, amabatur, "he was loved;" domus cediftca- 
batur, " the house was building," not " was built ;" nor " was 
being built;" opus peragebatur, "the work was finish, 
ing," &c. 

III. The Perfect tense is used in two different 
senses ; First it represents an action as just com- 
pleted at the present time ; or, if in past time, still 
as continued to, and in some way connected with 
the present. Secondly, as completed in some in- 
definite past time. 

In the first sense, it is definite, and corresponds to the Eng- 
lish perfect; as, scripsi, "I have written;" hujus ad me- 
moriam nostram monumenta manslrunt duo, " two monu- 
ments of him have remained to our day." 

In the second sense it is indefinite, and corresponds to the 
indefinite form of the English Imperfect, (Eng. Gr. § 24.11.) 
as, scripsi, " I wrote," or "did write." In this sense it is com- 
monly used in historical narrative, and corresponds to the 
Greek Aorist, — thus, Ccesar exercitum finibus Italia adrnd- 
vit, Rubicon transiit, Romam occupavit, " Caesar marched 
his army to the confines of Italy, crossed the Rubicon, and 
took possession of Rome." 

1. This tense, used indefinitely, is sometimes coupled with 
the imperfect, the former denoting a transitory, the latter a 
continued action, thus ; Virg. Conticuere omnes, intentique Ora 



88 THE VERB. TENSES. § 44 

tenebant. — " All were silent, and with eager attention kept 
their eyes fixed upon him." 

2. It is sometimes used like the present, to express what 
is true at any time ; thus, Virg. Felix qui potuit rerum, cog' 
noscere causas, " Happy is that man, who is able to investi- 
gate the causes of things." 

S. Sometimes it is used in the sense of the pluperfect , as 
Qua postquam evolvit — ligavit, " After he had separated 
these things, — he bound them," &c. Ovid, 

4. It is also used poetically for the imperfect and pluper- 
fect of the subjunctive ; as, nee veni, nisi, &c. " Nor would 
I have come, unless," &c. 

5. In the passive form this tense is compound, consisting 
of the perfect participle of the verb, and the present or per- 
fect tense of sum as an auxiliary ; as, amatus sum, or ama- 
tus fui, " I have been loved." 

Note. — In all compound tenses, the participle must be in the same 
gender and number with the nominative to the verb. 

IV. The Pluperfect tense represents an action 
as completed at, or before some past time expressed 
or implied ; and if before it, still continued to and 
in some way connected with it ; as, scripseram. 
"I had written." 

This tense corresponds to the pluperfect in English and is 
rendered by it. It bears the same relation to the perfect that 
the imperfect does to the present. 

1. The pluperfect is sometimes used, especially by the 
poets, for the perfect indicative, and also for the pluperfect 
subjunctive ; as, Dixeram a principio, ut de republicd sile- 
retur, — Cic. " I have said from the beginning," &c. Si 
mens mon Iceva fuisset, impulerat, &c. Virg. — " he would 
have impelled" The same idiom is found in English, " he 
had impelled" for u he would have impelled." 

2. In the passive form this tense, like the perfect is com- 
pound, consisting of the perfect participle and the imperfect 
or pluperfect of sum used as an auxiliary ; as, amatus eram, 
or amatus fuer am, " I had been loved. 

Note. — In these compound forms, the participle seems to be consi- 
dered sometimes as little different from an adjective. In such cases, 



§ 45 THE VERB.— TENSES. 89 

sum becomes the verb and is rendered by its own tense ; as, opus 
peracium est, " the work is finished;" fini tus jam labor erat, " the la- 
bor was now finished." 

V. The Future Tense represents an action or 
event indefinitely as yet to come; as, scribam, 
"I shall or will write." 

1. This tense is sometimes used in the sense of the impe- 
rative ; as, liques vina, " filtrate the wine." Hor. 

2. The participle in -rus, with the verb sum, is frequently 
used instead of the future, especially if purpose or intention 
is signified ; as, scripturus sum, " I am going to write." 

VI. The Future-perfect intimates that an ac- 
tion or event will be completed at or before a cer- 
tain time yet future; as, scripsero, "I shall have 
written;" viz, at or before some future time or 
event. In the passive it has two forms ; as scrip- 
tus ero or scriptus fuero, the first denoting the 
completion of a future action indefinitely, the se- 
cond as in the active voice. 

1. This tense, sometimes called the Future subjunctive 5 
properly belongs to the indicative mood, both in signification 
and construction. For the Future subjunctive see § 45. 1, 

2. Though the proper rendering of this tense be shall have, 
yet generally the have or the shall, and frequently both, are 
omitted 5 as, qui Antonium oppresserit, is helium confecerit, 
" he who shall cut off Antony shall put an end to the war." 

3. This tense is also used imperatively 5 as, memineris tu, 
" remember thou ;" ille viderit, " let him see to it." 



§ 45. TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

The tenses of the subjunctive mood are the Present^ the 
Imperfect, the Perfect, and the Pluperfect. 

1. There is no distinct form of a future in the subjunctive, 
all the tenses of this mood sometimes incline to a future sig- 
nification. But when a future subjunctive is required the 
8* 



90 THE VERB. TENSES. § 45 

future participle in -rus with the verb sum in the subjunc- 
tive present, is used ; as, haud dubtto quin facturus sit, " I 
doubt not that he will do it." 

2. The tenses of the subjunctive mood in Latin, like those 
of the potential in English, are much less definite in respect 
of time, than the tenses of the indicative, being modified by 
the time and meaning of the verbs with which they stand 
connected. 

3. All the tenses of the subjunctive mood are often render- 
ed like the corresponding tenses of the indicative, § 42. II. 1st. 

I. The Present subjunctive is generally render- 
ed by may or can, expressing present liberty, or 
ability ; as, scribam, " I may write. 55 But, 

1. this tense is often used in the sense of the imperative 
mood to express a command, entreaty, or exhortation ; as, 
amem, " let me love." This use is always elliptical § 42. 
Obs. 4. 5. 

2. After quasi, tanquam, and the like, it is sometimes ren- 
dered as the imperfect indicative ; as quasi intelligant, "as if 
they understood." 

3. When a question is asked it is frequently rendered 
as the indicative ; as, Eloquar an sileam ? " Shall I speak 
or be silent?" Sometimes by should; as, Singula quid 
refe ram, " Why should I relate every thing? Sometimes 
by would; as In f acinus jurdsse putes, u You would think 
they had sworn to commit wickedness." 

II. The Imperfect subjunctive is commonly 
rendered by the signs might, could, would, or 
should, expressing past liberty, power, will, or obli- 
gation; as, scriberem, "I might, could, or would, 
should write. 55 

1. This tense may relate either to what is past, or present, 
or future ; as, si fata fuissent ut caderem, " if my destiny had 
been that I should fall;" si posse?n sanior essem, " If I could 
I would be wiser;" post hcec prcecipitem darem, " after- 
wards I would throw him down headlong." 

2. Sometimes the imperfect is rendered as the pluperfect ; 
as, si quis dicer et, nunquam putarem" &c. " If any one had 
said it, I never would have thought," &c. 



§ 45 THE VERB. TENSES. 91 

3. After quo minus, the whole may often be rendered by 
from, with the present participle ; as, Si te tua infirmitas 
valetudinis tenuity quo minus ad ludos venires. If your 
weak state of health has prevented you from coming to the 
games. So, Ne quis impedtretur quo minus ejus rebus 
frueretur. Nep. Deterrere aliquem quo minus, &c. 

III. The Perfect subjunctive is used to denote 
an act or event, spoken of as already past, or 
which will be past at some future time, but 
about which there is at present some contingency 
or uncertainty, in the mind of the speaker. It 
is commonly rendered by the signs may have ; 
B3 9 fortasse scripserim, "perhaps I may have writ- 
ten, 3 ' implying, " if so, I have at present forgot- 
ten it.' 5 

This general idea is expressed with much variety in 
English, according as the tense stands connected with other 
words in the sentence. This will be best explained by a few 
examples. 

1. It is sometimes rendered like the present; as, ut sic 
dixerim, " that I may so speak." Sometimes like the imper- 
fect ; as, TJbi ego audiverim, "where should I have heard 
it ;" fortasse erraverim " perhaps I might be in an error." 

2. This tense sometimes inclines very much to a future 
signification, and is rendered by should, would, could, can, 
will, shall; as, Citius crediderim, "I should sooner be- 
lieve;" Juv. Libenter audieri?n, "I would gladly hear," 
Cic; Ciceronem cuicunque eorum facile opposuerim, "I could 
easily match Cicero with any of them." Non facile dixerim, 
" I cannot well tell ;" Nee tamen excluserim alios, " and yet I 
will not exclude others." Si paululum modo quid tefuge- 
rit, ego perierim, " If any thing however trifling escape 
you, I shall be undone." Ter. 

3. After quasi, tanquam, and the like, it is sometimes 
rendered by had 5 as, quasi affuerim, " As if I had been pre- 
sent;" — perinde ac si jam vicerint, "just as if they had al- 
ready conquered." 

4. It is sometimes used in concessions ; as, part a sit pe- 
cuniae " suppose the money were gotten." Sometimes as 



92 THE VERB. TENSES. § 46 

the imperative, with the idea of urgency; as, hcec dicta slut 
patribus, " Let these things be told quickly to the fathers." 

IV. The Pluperfect subjunctive denotes an ac- 
tion or event contingent at some past time, but 
regarded as to be perfected before another action 
or time subsequent to it and connected with it, 
as, 

Quodcunque. jussisset me facturum esse dixi, " I said 
(then) that I would do whatever he should order." Here 
his ordering was contingent at the time referred to, (then) 
but it was to take place before the doing connected w r ith it 
so, Id responderunt se facturos esse^cum ille vento Aquiline 
Lemnum venisset, " They replied that they would do that when 
he should return to Lemnos with a north wind." In such 
constructions the leading verb is usually in the past tense, or 
in the present used for the past. It is variously rendered by 
would, could, might, had, might have, could have, ivould 
have, should have, or ought to have ; as, si jussisset ^paruissem, 
" If he had commanded, I should have obeyed." Hence ob- 
serve. 

1. That though the action or state is often future in res- 
pect to the time of the leading verb, yet it is past with re- 
gard to the action or state dependent on it. 

2. After quum it is used in the sense of the pluperfect to 
express an action antecedent to another past action connected 
with it ; as, Ccesar quum hcec dixisset, profectus est, " When 
Csesar had said these things he departed." Thus used, quum 
with the pluperfect, may be elegantly rendered by the com- 
pound perfect participle in English ; thus the above example 
may be rendered, " Csesar having said these things, departed." 



§ 46. TENSES OF THE IMPERATIVE. 

The Imperative mood in Latin, has only one tense, name- 
ly, the present. Still the act from the nature of this mood 
is necessarily future ; as, scribe, " w T rite thou." The com- 
mand is present, the act commanded, future. 

The other tenses used imperatively, are the future and fu- 



§ 47 THE VERB. TENSES. 93 

ture-perfect indicative, and the present, and perfect subjunc- 
tive ) which see. 



§ 47. TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE. 

The tenses of the Infinitive are three, the Pre- 
sent, the Perfect and the Future, and in the ac- 
tive voice, the Future-perfect. 

In Latin, the tenses of the infinitive express its action as 
past, present, or future, not with regard to the present time, 
as in the other moods, but with regard to the time of the 
leading verb, on which it is dependent, i. e. 

1. The Present Infinitive represents the action or state 
expressed by the verb as present, and going on at the time 
of *the leading verb, and consequently must be rendered into 
English in the time of the leading verb ; as, dixit se scribere, 
"he said that he tvas writing;" dicit se scribere, " he says 
that he is writing." See No. 5. 

2. The Perfect Infinitive represents the action or state 
expressed by the verb, as past at the time of the leading verb, 
and must be rendered accordingly, i. e., after a past tense, 
by the English Pluperfect ; and after the present, by the Eng- 
lish imperfect or perfect , as, dixit se scripsisse, " he said 
that he had written ;" dicit se scripsisse, " he says that he 
has written." 

3. The Future Infinitive represents the action or state 
expressed by the verb, as future at the time of the leading 
verb, and must be rendered accordingly ; as, dixit se scriptu- 
rum esse , " he said that he would write ;" dicit se scriptU- 
rum esse, "he says that he will write." 

4. The future infinitive active is compound, being made up 
of esse, or fuisse, and the participle in -rus agreeing in gen- 
der, number and case with the accusative before it, or with 
the nominative of the leading verb. With esse, it corresponds 
to the future indicative 5 with fuisse, to the future-perfect ; 
as, dixit se scriptUrum esse, " he said that he would write ;" 
dicit eos scripturos esse, " he says that they will write ; 
dixit earn scriptUr am fuisse, "he said that she would have 
written ;" dicit se scriptUrum fuisse, " he says that he would 



94 THE VERB. TENSES, § 47 

have written;" dicitur scripturus esse, "he is said to be 
about to write." 

Note. 1. Esse zndfuisse, in the future infinitive, are generally un- 
derstood thus, dixit se scripturum; and so of others. 

5. When the leading verb is in the future tense, the infi- 
nitive mood will be properly translated in its own tense, not 
in that of the leading verb ; as, dicet se scribere, " he will 
say that he is writing ;" dicet se scripsisse, " he will say 
that he has written ;" dicet se scripturum esse, "he will say 
that he will write;" se scripturum fuisse, "that he will have 
written." So also in the passive voice. 

6. The perfect infinitive passive is made up of esse or fu- 
isse and the perfect participle in -us, agreeing in gender, num- 
ber and case with the accusative before it, or with the nomi- 
native of the leading verb, when that is in the passive voice ; 
as, dicit liter as scriptas esse, "he says that letters were 
written;" Uteres dicuntur scriptce esse, "letters are said to 
have been written," &c. Esse and fuisse&re sometimes un- 
derstood. See Note 1. 

7. The future infinitive passive is also a compound tense, 
consisting of the former supine, and iri the present infinitive 
passive of eo ; as, scriptum iri, "to be about to write." 

8. The future infinitive of deponent verbs, § 72 is made 
with esse or fuisse, and the participle m-rus, as in the active 
voice No. 4, and not like the future infinitive passive. 

9. When the verb in the active voice has no supine, and 
consequently no participle in-rus, there can of course be no 
future infinitive. In this case the want of it is supplied by 
the future infinitive of sum, viz. futurum esse, or fore fol- 
lowed by ut, and the subjunctive in the present or imperfect, 
as the leading verb may require. Thus, dixit fore ut lu- 
glret "he said that he would mourn;" dicit fore ut lug eat, 
" he says that he will mourn." 

Note. 2. This form of expression is often used both in the active 
and passive, even when the verb has the regular form of the future 
infinitive. § 145. Obs. 6. 

10. Fore the infinitive of sum is used with all participles 
in-us ; as, Commismm cum equitdtu pr alio fore videbat, 
Caes. Deinde addis, te fore venturum, Cic. Mitt endos fore 
legdtos. Liv. 

11. The infinitive mood with a subject, i.e. with an accu- 



§ 47 THE VERB. TENSES. 95 

sative before it is usually rendered as the indicative, the par- 
ticle that ■, being commonly placed before it. The following 
examples will illustrate the method of translating the diffe- 
rent tenses, of "the infinitive when preceded by the leading 
verb in present, past, and future time. 

INFINITIVE ACTIVE. 

1 Dicit me scribire, He says that I write, or am writing, 

2 Dixit me scribtre, He said that I wrote, or was writing. 

3 Dicet me scribtre, He will say that I am writing. 

4 Dicit me scripsisse, He says that I wrote, or did write. 

5 Dixit me scripsisse, He said that I had written. 

6 Dicet me scripsisse, He will say that I have written, or did write. 

7 Dicit me scripturum esse, He says that I will write. 

8 Dixit me scripturum esse, He said that I would write. 

9 Dicet me scripturum esse, He will say that I will write. 

10 Dicit me scripturum fuisse, He says that I would have written. 

11 Dixit me scripturum fuisse, He said that I would have written. 

12 Dicet me scripturum fuisse, He will say that I would have written. 

INFINITIVE PASSIVE. 

13 Dicit literas scribi, He says that letters are written, or writing. 

14 Dixit literas scribi, He said that letters were written, or writing. 

15 Dicet literas scribi t He will say that letters are written, or writing. 

16 Dicit literas scriptas esse, He says that letters are, or were written. 

17 Dixit literas scriptas esse, He said that letters had been written. 

18 Dicet literas scriptas esse, He will say that letters are, or were 

written. 

19 Dicit literas scriptas fuisse, He says that letters have been written. 

20 Dixit literas scriptas fuisse, He said that letters had been written. 

21 Dicet literas scriptas fuisse, He will say that letters have been written. 

2.2 Dicit literas scriptum iri, He says that letters will be written. 

23 Dixit literas scriptum iri, He said that letters would be written. 

24 Dicet literas scriptum iri, He will say that letters will be written. 
Note 3.— When the preceding verb is of the imperfect, or pluper. 

feet tense, the English of the infinite is the same as when it is of the 
perfect, i. e. is the same as the infinitive after dixit, in the above ta- 
ble. 
Note 4.— As the perfect definite, § 44. Ill, connects the action corn- 



96 THE VERB. — TENSES. § 48 

pleted with the present time, the infinitive after it, m this sense, will 
generally be translated as it is after the present ; as, dixit me scri- 
b8re,-~scripsisse, — scripturum esse, he has said that I am writing,— 
was writing, — will write, i. e. as it is in Examples No. 1, 4, and 
7. With dixit used indefinitely, the infinitive would be rendered as 
in Examples No. 2, 5, and 8. 



$ 48. OF NUMBER AND PERSON. 

1. Every tense of the verb has two numbers, the^singu- 
lar and plural, corresponding to the singular and plural of 
Nouns and Pronouns. 

2. In each number, the verb has three persons, called first , 
second and third. The first asserts of the person speaking ; 
the second of the person spoken to ; and the third of the per- 
son or thing spoken of. In the Imperative there are only 
two persons, the second and third. 

3. The subject or nominative of the verb in the first per- 
son singular, is always ego, in the plural, nos; in the second 
person singular, tu; in the plural, vos. These are seldom ex- 
pressed, being sufficiently indicated by the termination of the 
verb; as, scribo, "I w^rite ;" scribimus, a we write;" scri- 
bis, " thou write st," scribitis "you write." 

The subject of the verb in the third person, is any person 
or thing spoken of, whether it be expressed by a noun, pro- 
noun, infinitive, gerund, or clause of a sentence ; as, vir scri- 
bit, "the man writes;" illi legunt, "they read;" ludere 
jucundum est, "to play is pleasant;" incertum est, quam 
longa vita futura sit, "how long our life will be is uncer- 
tain." 

4. Two or more nouns or pronouns together may be the 
subject of one verb. If these happen to be of different per- 
sons, the verb takes the first person, rather than the second 
or third, and the second rather than the third ; as, Ego, et tu, 
et ille scribimus, " I and thou and he write." 

5. Pronouns, participles or adjectives having nouns under- 
stood to them, are of the third person. Qui takes the person 
of the antecedent. Ipse may be joined to any person, ac- 
cording to the sense. 

6. To verbs also belong Participles, Gerunds and Supines. 



§ 49 THE VERB. PARTICIPLES. 97 

§ 49. PARTICIPLES. 

1. Participles are parts of the verb which contain no 
affirmation, but express the meaning of the verb considered 
as a general quality or condition of an object ; as, amans, 
"loving 5" doctus, "learned." 

2. Participles belong partly to the verb, and partly to the 
adjective. From the former they have signification, voice 
and tense; from the latter, declension; those in -ns are of the 
third declension, and declined like prudens, § 21. 2 5 all 
others are of the first and second, and declined like bonus, 
§ 20. i . /"In construction they have the government of the 
verb, and the concord or agreement of the adjective^ § 98. 

3. When the idea of time is separated from the participle, 
it becomes a participial or verbal adjective, and is capable of 
comparison; as, doctus, doctior, doctissimus, "learned, more 
learned, most learned." 

4. Latin verbs have four participles, of which two belong 
to the active voice, namely, the present in -ns, and the future 
in -rus; and two to the passive, namely, the perfect in -tus^ 
-sus, or -xus; and tins future in -dus, 

5. The time of the participle like that of the infinitive is 
estimated from the time of the leading verb; i. e. the accom- 
panying action or state expressed by the participle is present, 
past, or future, at the time indicated by the leading verb, 
with which it is connected; thus, vzdi eum venientem, "I 
saw him coming." Numa, Curious natus, rex credtus est, 
"Numa born at Cures was made king." Elephantes amnem 
transituri mimmos prcemittunt, "Elephants about to cross a 
river send the smallest first." 

Note 1. — The perfect participle, both of deponent and common 
verbs often expresses an action, nearly or entirely contemporaneous 
with that of the leading verb. In such cases it is better rendered into 
English by the present participle in -ing than by its ordinary render- 
ing j as, Hoc f acinus rex mirattjs juvenem dimisit, " The king admii'- 
ing this act dismissed the youth," Liv. Arbitrates idbellum celeriter 
confici posse, eb exercitum adduxit. Cses. Hac arte Pollux — enistjs, 
arces attigit igneas. Hor. Columba fixamque refert delapsa sagittam, 
Virg. Puh'i bis seniquemque$KcxsTi,a$mine'partito ) fulgent. So also 
the perfect participle of the active verb, see No. 8, Note 3. • 

6. The future passive participle in -dus sometimes expres- 

9 



98 THE VERB. PARTICIPLES. § 49 

ses bare futurity as, his (scil. ventis) quoque habendum aera 
permtsit, "to these also he gave the region of the air to be 
possessed." But in conjunction with the verb sum and fre- 
quently also in other constructions, it denotes necessity, pro- 
priety, or obligation, and hence by inference, futurity ; as, 
Delendaest Carthago, " Carthage must be destroyed." Facta 
narrdbas dissimulanda tibi, "You were relating facts which 
you should have concealed." 

7. The participle in-dus of all active verbs is often used 
in the oblique cases in the sense of the gerund. Thus used 
it is called a Gerundive participle, and agrees with its sub- 
stantive in gender and number 5 and both take the case which 
the gerund would have in the same place, thus ; tempzis pe- 
tendm pads, by the gerund, ispetendi pdcem ; " time of seek- 
ing peace," rerum repetunddrum causd "for the sake of de- 
manding redress 5" by the gerund, repeiundi res. 

Note 2. — Crombie, as well as Perizonius, to whom he refers, thinks 
that the participle in-dus, is strictly and properly a present passive 
participle ; that the ideas of futurity as well as of necessity or obliga* 
gation supposed to be expressed by it, are not inherent in the word, 
but have come by usage to be assigned to it, in certain connexions. It 
is certain the arguments in support of this opinion, are not without 
great weight, yet as no inconvenience can arise from regarding it as 
future, and as necessity, obligation, propriety, and consequently fu- 
turity are commonly expressed by it, it has been thought proper to 
retain the usual designation. Still if the opinion just stated is cor- 
rect, it affords an easy and natural explanation of what is called the 
gerundive use of this participle ; it is only expressing by a passive 
form in Latin, an idea which we now commonly express in English, 
by the active form. Thus, 

Active form ; tempus petendi pacem, " time of seeking peace." 
Passive form ; tempus petendce pads, " time of peace being sought." 
These different forms express the same idea both in Latin and 
English, but as the passive form is not usual in English, the active 
is used as the rendering of both forms in Latin. 

8. The Latin language has no perfect participle in the ac- 
tive voice, nor present participle in the passive, unless the 
participle in -dus be so considered. The want of the former 
is made up in two ways. First, by the perfect participle 
passive in the case absolute as, C&sar, his diet is, prof ectus est, 
"Caesar, (these things being said, i. e.) having said these 
things departed." And Secondly, by quum with the pluper- 



§ 50 GERUNDS AND SUPINES. 99 

feet subjunctive; as, Ccesar, qtium hcec dizisset, profectus 
est, "Ceesar (when he had said, i. e.) having said these things, 
departed." 

Note 3— .The want of the present participle passive, is made up 
either by the perfect participle, or by the future participle in -dus, both 
of which appeay-to be sometimes used in a present sense j as, Notus 
evtilat piced tectus caligine, " Notus flies forth (being) covered with 
pitchy darkness, Ovid. Volvenda dies en attulit ultro, "Lo! re- 
volving time (lit. time being rolled on) hath of itself brought about." 
Virg. Or by the gerundive form of expression as in No. 7, together 
with Note 2. See also, No. 5, Note 1. 

9. Active or Transitive verbs have four participles of 
which the present in -ns, and the future in -rus, belong to 
the active voice ; the perfect in -tus, -sus, or -xics, and fhe 
future in -dus, to the passive. 

10. Neuter or Intransitive verbs have two participles, 
namely, the present in -ns, and the future in -rus; frequently 
also the future passive in -dus, and also the perfect passive. 

11. Neuter passive verbs have commonly three participles, 
namely, the present, perfect, and future in -rus, § 78. 

12. Deponent verbs of an active signification have general- 
ly four participles ; those of a neuter signification commonly 
want the future in -dus, except that the neuter in -dum is 
sometimes used impersonally. 

13. Common verbs have generally four participles, of 
which the perfect only is used both in an active and passive 
sense; as, adeptusvictoriam, "having obtained the victory;" 
victoria adeptd, ^the victory being obtained;" the rest are ac- 
tive, § 72. Obs. 2. 

14. Some Neuter verbs, though they have no passive, yet 
have participles of the perfect passive form, but still with a 
neuter signification; such are coznatus, " having supped;" 
pransus, " having dined;" juratus, " having sworn." 



§ 50. GERUNDS AND SUPINES. 

The Gerund is a kind of verbal noun used only in the 
singular number. It represents the action or state ex- 
pressed by the verb as a thing now going on, and at the same 



100 VERBS.— CONJUGATION. § 51 

time, if in the nominative, or in the accusative before the in- 
finitive as the subject of discourse ; and if in the oblique 
cases, as the object of some action or relation. They are 
construed in all respects as nouns, and also govern the case 
of their verbs, § 143. 

In meaning and use, the gerund resembles the English pre- 
sent participle, used as a noun. See Eng. Gr. § 30. 7," and 
the Greek infinitive with the article prefixed. See Gr. Gr. 
* 173. 

Supines are defective verbal nouns of the fourth declen- 
sion, having only the accusative and ablative singular. 

The supine in -um has an active signification and governs 
the case of the verb, § 116. Exp. 

The supine in -u has usually a passive signification, and 
governs no case. 



S> 51. CONJUGATION OF REGULAR VERBS. 

1. Regular verbs are those in which the secondary parts 
are formedfrom the primary, according to certain rules, § 52. 

2. The Conjugation of a verb is the regular combination 
and arrangement of its several voices, moods^ tenses, numbers 
and persons. 

3. Of regular verbs in Latin, there are /our conjugations, 
called the First, Second, Third and Fourth. These are 
distinguished from each other by the vowel before -re, in the 
present infinitive active; thus, 

The First conjugation has a long before -re of the infinitive. 

The Second has e long before -re of the infinitive. 

The Third has e short before -re of the infinitive. 

The Fourth has I long before -re of the infinitive. 

Exc. Dare and its compounds of the first conjugation have 
a short. 

4. The primary tenses or parts of the verb from which 
all the other parts are formed, are four, namely, -o of the 
present indicative, -re of the present infinitive, -i of the per- 
fect indicative, and -um of the supine. The giving of these 



§ 51 VERBS. CONJUGATION. 101 

parts in the order just mentioned is called conjugating the 
verb; thus, 





Pres. Ind. 


Pres. Inf. 


Perf. Ind. 


1st Supine. 


1st Com. 


Amo, 


amare, 


amavi, 


amatum. 


2d 


Moneo, 


monere, 


monui, 


momtum. 


3d 


Rego, 


regere, 


rexi, 


rectum. 


4th 


Audio, 


audire, 


audlvi, 


auditum. 



The manner of conjugating each verb being accurately as- 
certained from the Dictionary, the other tenses may be formed 
with certainty by the rules laid down in the next section.* 

* Though, general rules may be, and have been laid down to form 
the primary tenses, from the general root or stem of the verb, .yet 
there is such a multitude of exceptions in the third conjugation, (and 
some in the others also,) which it is impossible to bring under any'rule, 
that it will be found indispensable, after all, to learn the conjugation 
of each verb from the dictionary or from the table of irregular con- 
jugations, § 81. For this reason they are here omitted in the text as 
useless for any practical purpose. The principle methods proposed 
are in substance the two following : 

First. The general root or stem that runs through the whole verb, 
consists of the letters preceding the infinitive terminations, -are, -ere, 
-ere, -ire. 

To form the primary tenses there is added to the general root as 
follows : 

Pr. Ind. Pr. Inf. Perf. Ind. 1st. Supine. 
In the 1st. Conj. -o, -are, -avi, -atum, 

" 2d. " -eo, -ere, -ui, -Itum. 

11 3d. " -o, &-Io, -ere, -i & -si, -turn, & -sum. 

" 4th. " -io, -Ire, -ivi, -itum. 

In the Perfect of the third Conjugation observe, 

1. If the root of the verb ends with a vowel, the termination added 
is 4; as acuo, root acu, perfect aciii. 

2. If the root of the verb ends with a consonant, the usual termi- 
nation is -«, which in uniting with the root causes, the following 
changes, viz. 

1st. If the letter preceding -si be c, g, h, or qu, it unites with the s 
and forms x ; as, duco (duc-si) duxi; jingo, (fing-si,) finxi, 
traho, (trah-si) traxi ; coquo, (coqu-si) coxi. 

2d. The letter b before -si is changed into p ; as, scribo, scripsi. 

3d. When d precedes -si, either the d or the s is rejected j as, de m 
fendo, defendi; claudo, clausi. 

4th. The 5 is dropped in many verbs which cannot be brought un- 
der any definite rule ; as, lego, legi; emo, emi. 

In the Supine of the third Conjugation observe, 

1. When the root of the verb ends in a vowel the supine adds -turn 
and lengthens the vowel preceding it ; as, acuo, acutum. 
9* 



102 THE VERB. FORMATION OF TENSES. § 52 

$ 52. FORMATION OF THE TENSES IN THE AC- 
TIVE VOICE. 

I. Indicative Mood. 

1. The Present is a primary tense. 

2. The Imperfect is formed from the present by changing, 
in the 1st Conj. -o into -abam; as, am-o, am-abam, 
in the 2d -eo into -ebam; as, mon-eo, mon-lbam, 

in the 3d and 4th -o into -ttaro; as J re ^ ' ™g;?l"™> 

2. When the root ends with a consonant, the supine adds -turn, 

sometimes -sum. In uniting with the root, the following changes 

for the sake of euphony take place ; viz. 

]st. The letter b, before -tumis changed into p; as scribo, scriptum. 

2d. The letters g, h, and qu, before -turn are changed into c ; as, 

rego, rectum; traho, tr actum ; coquo, coctum. ■ 
3d. The letter g before -sum when a vowel precedes, unites with the 
sand forms #; as, figo, (fig-sum) fixum j when r precedes, 
the g is rejected; as, tergo, tersum. 
4th. The letter d before -sum is rejected as defendo, defensum. 
Secondly. The general root being found as before ,• then, to form 
the second root in the first, second, and fourth conjugations, (i. e. the 
root of the perfect tense,) add -av for the first, -u for the second, 
and -iv for the fourth ,• as, am, amav ; mon, monu ; aud } audiv. 

To form the third root (i. e. the root of the supine,) in the same 
conjugations, add to the general root the syllables -atu, -itu. and 
-itu; as, am, amatu ; mon , monitu ; aud, auditu. 

The three roots being thus found, the primary tenses are formed as 
follows ; viz: 

1. From the first root the present indicative is formed, 

in the 1st conjugation by adding -o, as, am, am-o. 

in the 2d " by adding -eo, as, mon, mon-eo. 

in the 3d " by adding -o.or-io, as, reg, reg-o. 

in the 4th u by adding -io, as, aud, aud-io. 

2. From the same root the present infinitive is formed, 

in the 1st conjugation by adding -are, as, am, am-are. 

in the 2d u by adding -ere, as, mon, mon-ere. 

in the 3d " by adding -ere, as, reg, reg-ere. 

in the 4th " by adding -ire, as, aud, aud-ire. 

3. From the second root in all conjugations, the perfect is formed 
by adding i; as, amav-i, monu-i, audiv-i. 

4. From the third root in all conjugations, the first supine is formed 
by adding m; as, amatu-m, monitu-m, &c. 

The third conjugation is so irregular in the formation of its roots, 
that no rules are attempted. 

The first of these methods is substantially that offered in the Gram- 
mar of Zumpt. The second is the plan of Andrews and Stoddart, 
which they carry out by applying it to all the tenses as well as to the 
primary. 



§ 52 THE VERB. — FORMATION OF TENSES. 103 

3. The Perfect is a primary tense. 

4. The Pluperfect in all conjugations is formed from the 
perfect, by changing -i into -eram; as, amdv-i, amav-eram ; 
monu-i, rnonu-eram, &c. 

5. The Future is formed from the present by changing — 
in the lstconjugaton-o into -dbo; as, am-o> am-dbo. 
in the 2d, -eo into -ebo; as, mon-eo, mon-lbo. 

in the 3d and 4th, -o into -am; as, \ reg '?' re 8;? m - 

7 ( audz-o, audz-am. 

6. The Future-perfect in all conjugations is formed from 
the perfect, by changing -i into -ero; as, amav-i, amav-ero; 
monu~i, monu-ero, &c. 

II. The Subjunctive Mood. 

7. The Present Subjunctive is formed from the present 
indicative, by changing, — in the first conjugation, -o into -em; 
as, am-o, am-em; in the second, third and fourth, by changing 
-o into -am ; as, mone-o, mone-am; reg-o, reg-am; audz-o, 
audi- am. 

8. The Imperfect Subjunctive in all conjugations is form- 
ed from the present infinitive by adding m; as, amdre, amdrem; 
monere, monerem, regere, regerem, &c. 

9. The Perfect Subjunctive is formed from the perfect 
indicative by changing -i into -erim ; as, amdv-i, amdv-erim; 
monu-i, monu-erim, &c. 

10. The Pluperfect Subjunctive is formed from the perfect 
indicative by changing -i into -issam; as, amav-i, amdv-issem, 
monu-i, monu-issem, &c. 

III. The Imperative Mood. 

11. The Present Imperative is formed from the present 
infinitive by taking away -re; as, amdre, amd; monere, mo- 
ne; regere, rege; audzre, audi. 

IV. The Infinitive Mood. 

12. The Present Infinitive is a primary tense. 

13. The Perfect Infinitive, is formed from the perfect 
indicative by changing -i into, -isse; as, amdv-i, amdv-isse; 
monu-i, monu-isse, &c. 



104 THE VERB. FORMATION OF TENSES. § 53 

14. The Future Infinitive is a compound tense, made up 
of esse or fuisse, and the future participle in -rz£s; v as, esse or 
fuisse amdturus,-a,-um; esse or fuisse moniturus,'a,-um, &c. 

V. Participles, Gerunds and Supines. 

15. The Present Participle is formed from the present in- 
dicative by changing, 

-o in the 1st Conjug. into -ans; as, am-o, am-ans. 
-eo in the 2d " into -ens; as, mon~eo,mon-ens. 

-o in the 3d and 4th into -ens; as. \ V' C". ' 

; ' ( audz-o, audz-ens. 

16. The Future Participle is formed from the former su- 
pine by changing -um into -Urus; as, amdt-um, amdt-urus; 
monzt-um, momt-Urus, &c. 

The Gerund is formed from the present indicative by 

changing, 

-o in the 1st Conj. into -andum; as, am-o, am- andum. 
-eo in the 2d " into -endum; as, mon-eo, mon-endum. 

-o in the 3d and 4th into -endum; as, j "%?> reg-endum, 

( audz-o, audz-endum* 

18. The Former Supine is a primary part of the verb. 

19. The Latter Supine is formed from the former by drop- 
ping m; as, amdtum, amdtu; monitum, monztu, &c. 



§ 53. FORMATION OF THE TENSES IN THE PAS- 
SIVE VOICE. 

1. In the Indicative mood, the Present tense is formed 
from the present active by adding r ; as, amo, amor; moneo, 
moneor, &c. In the imperfect and future from the same tenses 
in the active voice, by changing m into r ; as, amdbam, 
amabar ; monebo, monebor, &c. 

2. In the Subjunctive mood, the Present and Imperfect are 
formed from the same tenses in the active, by changing m 
into r ; as, amem, amer ; moneam, monear, &c. 

3. The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future-perfect Indica- 
tive, and the Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive are compound 



§ 54 THE VERB. SUM. 105 

tenses, made up of the perfect participle passive, and the verb 
sum, as an auxiliary, as exhibited in the paradigm of these 
tenses. 

4. The Imperative in all verbs is formed by adding -re to 
the imperative active; as, amd, amare; mone, monere, &c. 
Hence, the imperative passive is like the present infinitive 
active. 

5. The Present Infinitive is formed from the present infini- 
tive active by changing -re in the first, second, and fourth con- 
jugations, into -ri; as, amd-re, amd-ri; mone-re, mone-ri; 
audl-re, audi~ri ;zxA by changing -ere in the third into -i ; 
as, reg-ere, reg-i. 

The Perfect infinitive is a compound tense, made up of 
the perfect participle, and esse or fuisse prefixed; as, esse or 
fuisse amdtus, -a, -urn, &c. 

The Future Infinitive is also a compound tense, made up 
of the former supine and iri, the present infinitive passive 
of eo ; as, amdtum iri; monitum iri, &c. 

6. The Perfect Participle is formed from the former supine 
by changing -urn into -us; %$>,amdt-um, amdt-us; moriit-um, 
monit-us, &c. 

The Future Participle is formed as the active gerund by 
putting -dus instead of -dum ; as, Gerund, amandum, Part, 
amandus; Gerund, monendum, Part, monendus, &c. 



§ 54. THE IRREGULAR VERB SUM * 

This verb is sometimes called a substantive verb, as it de- 
notes being, or simple existence; as, sum, "I am," "I ex- 
ist." Sometimes it is called auxiliary, because it is used 
as an auxiliary verb in the conjugation of the passive voice. 
It is conjugated thus, 

* This verb being irregular, properly belongs to § 83. but is insert- 
ed here because, as an auxiliary, it is much used in the inflection of 
regular verbs. 



106 THE VERB. SUM. § 54 

Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. 

Sum, esse, fui. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, am. 
Sing. 1. Ego Sum,* lam, 

2. Tu Es, Thou\ art, or you are, 

3. Hie Est, He is; 
Plur. 1. iVos Sumus, PPe are, 

2. Fos Estis, Ye, or you are, 

3. iZfe* Sunt, They are. 

Imperfect, was. 
Sing. 1. Eram, I was, 

2. Eras, Thou wast, or you were, 

3. Erat, .He was; 
PZ&r. 1. Eramus, PPe were, 

2. Eratis, Ye, or 3/ow were, 

3. Erant, They were. 

Perfect Definite, have been; Indefinite, was. 
Sing. 1. Fui, I have been, 

2. Fuisti, Thou hast been, 

3. Fuit, He has been; 
Plur. 1. Fuimus, We have been, 

2. Fuistis, Ye have been, 

3. Fuerunt, or fuere, They have bee?c 

Pluperfect, had been. 
Sing. 1. Fueram, I had been, 

2. Fueras, Thou hadst been, 

3. Fuerat, He had been; 
Plur. 1. Fueramus, We had been, 

2. Fu eratis, Ye had been, 

3. Fuerant, They had been. 

* In the Indicative, Subjunctive, and Imperative mood, every part 
of the verb must have its Nominative expressed or understood. See 
§ 48. 3. The nominatives, Ego, tu, Me, of the singular, and Nos, 
vos, Mi, of the plural, are here prefixed in the present tense, to show 
their place and their use; but in the following tenses, and in the fol- 
lowing conjugations they are omitted. Still they are to be regarded 
as understood, and may be supplied at pleasure. 

t See § 28. Note. In the plural, " you" is much more common 
than " ye, ?; which is now seldom used. 



I 54 THE VERB. SUM. 107 

Future, shall,or will. 

Sing. 1. Ero, I shall, or will be, 

2, Eris, Thou shalt, or wilt be, 
8. Erit. He shall, or z^z'ZZ Z>e ; 

PZ&r. 1. Erimus, PFe shall, or ^ZZ &e. 

" 2. Eritis, Ye sA^ZZ, or will be 3 

3, Erunt, TAe?/ shall, or z^z'ZZ &e. 

Future-perfect, shall, or z^e'ZZ Aawe &eew. 

Sing. 1. Fuero, I shall, or ?^fZZ Aare #eew, 

2. Fueris, Thou shalt, or z^z'Z^ Aaue been, 

3: Fuerit, He saaZZ, or will have been ; 

Plur. 1. Fuerimus, We shall, or will have been, 

2. Fueritis, Ye shall, or will have been, 

3. Fuerint, They shall, or will have been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, may, or can. 

Sing. 1. Sim. I may or caw &e, 

2. Sis, Thou may st, or canst be^ 

3. Sit, He wza?/ or can be; 
Plur. 1. Simus, JFe wza?/ or caw £e, 

2. Sitis, Ye ?7z#?/ or can be, 

3. Sint s TAe?/ may or caw 5e. 

Imperfect might, could, would, or should. 
Sing. 1. Essem, I might, could, &c. #e, 

2. Esses, ThoumigAtst, &c. Z>e, 

3. Esset, He might, &c. &e ; 
PZwr,. 1. Essemus, We might, &c. Z>e, 

2. Essetis, Ye might, &c. &e, 

3. Essent, TAe^ might, &c. 5e. 

Perfect, wa?/ Aave. 

Sewg. 1. Fuerim, I may have bee?i, 

2. Fueris, Taow mayst have been, 

3. Fuerit, He ma?/ Aa^e Z>ee?z: 

PZwr. 1. Fuerimus, TFe may have been, 

2. Fueritis, Ye may have been, 

3. Fuerint, They may have been* 



10S 



THE VERB — SUM. 



§54 



Pluperfect, might, could, would or should have. 



Sing. 



Pint 



Sing, 
Plur. 



1. Fuissem, 

2. Fuisses, 

3. Fuisset, 

1. Fuissemus. 

2. Fuissetis, 

3. Fuissent, 



I might, &c. have been, 
Thou mightst, &c. have oeen % 
He might, &c. have been; 
We might, &c. havebeen, 
Ye might, &c. have been, 
They might, &c. have been. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



Es, or Esto. 

Esto, 

Este, or estate, 

Sunto, 



Be thou, 
Let him be; 
Be ye, 
Let them be. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Pres. Esse, 

Perf. Fuisse, 

Fut. Esse futurus, -a, -urn, 

F.Perf. Fuisse futurus, -a,-um, 



To be, §47. 11. 

To have been. 

To be about to be. 

To have been about to be. 



PARTICIPLE. 
Future, Futurus, -a, -urn, About to be. 
Synofsis of the Moods and Tenses 

Infinitive. 
esse. 

fuisse. 

esse futurus. 
fuisse futurus. 





Indicative. 


Sub junc. 


Imperative. \ 


Pres. 


sum. 


sim. 


es or esto. 


Imp. 


eram. 


essem. 




Perf. 


fui. 


fuerim. 




Plup. 


fuerara . 


fuissem. 




Fut. 


ero. 






F-perf. 


fuero. 







Part. 



futurus . 



Obs. 1. The compounds of sum ; namely, adsum, absum, 
desum, insum, intersum, obsum, prcesum, subsum, super" 
sum, are conjugated like the simple verb ; but insum, and 
suhsum want the perfect, and the tenses formed from it. 
Prosum, and possum, from potis and sum are very irregular, 
§ 83. 1. 2. 

Obs. 2. Instead of Essem, forem is sometimes used, and 
also fore, instead of fuisse. 

Obs. 3. The participle ens is not in use, but appears in 
two compounds, absens, and prcesens. 



§ 55 THE VERB.— SUM. 109 

Note.-— The great irregularity of this verb arises from the different 
parts being formed from different themes j viz. the parts beginning 
with e from eo, the root of the Greek sl^j, and those beginning with 
/ from fuo the same as the Greek yCw. 



§ 55. EXERCISES ON SUM AND ITS COMPOUNDS. 

1. Give the designation of the verb, — conjugate it, — give the tense, 
mood, person, number, and translation of the following words, always 
observing the same order; thus, — Sum, Verb, neuter, irregular, found 
in the present, indicative, first person, singular, " I am." — Fuit, V. 
neut. irr. found in the perf. ind. 3d pers. sing.,- definite, "he has 
been," indefinite " he was."* 

Est, erat, erit, fueram, fuerim, fuero, sit, esset, fuisti, fui- 
mus, fuerunt, fuere, erunt, sint, sumus, erant, essent, fuis- 
sent, esse, esto, sunto, fuisse, es, eras, fueras, fnistis, futu- 
rus esse, futurus, sint, &c. ad libitum. 

2. Translate the following English words into Latin, naming the 
part of the verb used; thus. — " I will be," h'o, in the future ind. 
1st pers. sing. The Latin word for J, thou, he, we, you, they, to be 
omitted or inserted at pleasure.! 

We are, they were, you have been, thou hast been, they 
will be, he may be, I shall have been, to be, be thou, let them 
be, about to be, to be about to be, we should be, we should 
have been, I may have been, they will have been, they may 
have been, they have been, you were, thou wast, he is, they 
are, &c. ad libitum. 

• In these and all following exercises on the verb, it will be of 
great importance, in order to form habits of accuracy, and as a pre- 
paration for future exercises in translating and parsing, to require 
the pupil in this manner to state every thing belonging to a verb in 
the order here indicated, or in any other the teacher may direct, al- 
ways, however, observing the same. And also for the saving of 
time and unnecessary labor, to state them in the fewest words possi- 
ble, and without waiting to have every word drawn from him by 
questions. 

t N. B. It will be a profitable exercise to require each pupil to 
write out the Latin for these and other English words that may be 
dictated, — carefully to mark the quantity of long and short vowels, 
and to pronounce them correctly after they are written. 

10 



110 THE VERB FIRST CONJUGATION. § 56 

§ 56. FIRST CONJUGATION. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Per/. Ind. Supine. 

Amo, amare, amavi, amatum, To lorn. 

Present Tense, love, do love, am loving, § 44. I, 

Sing. 1. Am-o, Ilove> do love, am loving, 

2. Am-as, Thou lovest, dost love, art loving? 

3. Am-at, He loves, does love, is loving; 

Plur. 1. Am-amus, We love, do love, are loving, 

2. Am-atis, Ye or you love, do love, are loving ^ 

3. Am-ant, They love, do love, are loving. 

Imperfect loved, did love, was loving, § 44. II. 

S. 1. Am-abam, I loved, did love, was loving. 

2. Am-abas, Thoulovedst, didst love, wast loving, 

3. Am-abat, He loved, did love, was loving; 

P. 1. Am-abamus, We loved, did love, were loving, 

2. Am-abatis, Ye loved, did love, were loving, 

3. Am-abant, They loved, did love, were loving. 

Perfect Def. have loved; Indef, loved, did love, § 44. HI. 

S. 1. Am-avi, I have loved, loved, did love, 

2. Am-avisti, Thou hast loved, lovedst, didst love, 

3. Am-avit, He has loved, loved, did love; 

P. 1. Am-avimus, We have loved, loved, did love, 

2. Anx-avistis, Ye have loved, loved, did love, 

3. Am-averunt,*r ) y , % ^^ ^^ didhn) ^ 

-avere, ) 

Pluperfect, had loved. § 44. IV. 

S. 1. Am-averam, I had loved, 

2. Am-averas, Thou hadst loved, 

3. Am-averat, He had loved; 
P. 1. Am-averamus, We had loved, 

2. Am-averatis, Ye had loved, 

3. Am-averant, They had loved. 



§ 56 THE VERB.— FIRST CONJUGATION. Ill 

Future, shall, or will love, § 44. V. 

S. 1. Am-abo, I shall, or will love, 

2. Am-abis, Thou s halt, or wilt love, 

3. Am-abit, He shall, or will love; 
P. 1. Am-abimus, We shall, or wz7Z love, 

2. Am-abitis, Ye sAaZZ, or will love, 

3. Am-abunt, They shall or Z027Z Zove. 

Future-perfect, shall, or 2#z7Z Aaue Zoued, § 44. VI. 

S. 1. Am-avero, I shall, or will have loved, 

2. Am-averis, Thou shall, or wz7Z have loved, 

3. Am-averit, ile shall, or wz7Z Aave Zewea 7 ; 
P. 1. Am-averimus, We shall, or z^7Z Aaye Zorec?, 

2. Am-averitis, Ye shall, or we7Z Aare loved, 

3. Am-averint, TAey sAaZZ, or will have loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present tense, may, or can love, § 45. I. 

S. 1. Am-em, I may, or can love, 

2. Am-es, Thou may est, or canst love, 

3. Am-et, He may, or caw love; 
P. 1. Am-emus, TFe may, or c#?z Zo^e, 

2. Am-etis, Ye may, or ca?z love, 

3. Am-ent, TAey ma?/, or can love. 

Imperfect, might, could, would, or should love, § 45. II. 

S. 1. Am-arem, I might, &c. love, 

2. Am-ares, Thou ?nightst, foe. love, 

3. Am a ret, He might, See. love; 
P. 1. Am-aremus, We might, Sco. love, 

2. Am-aretis, Ye might, &c. Zaye, 

3. Am-arent, They might, See. love. 

Perfect, may have loved, § 4-5. III. 

S. 1. Am-averim, J??za?/ Aave loved, 

2. Am-averis, TAow mayest have loved, 

3. Am-averit, He may have loved ; 
P. 1. Am-averimus, TFe ??zay have loved, 

2. Am-averitis, Ye may have loved, 

3. Am-averint, They may have loved. 



112 



THE VERB. — FIRST CONJUGATION. 



§ 56 



Pluperfect, might, could, would, or should have, § 45. IV. 

S. 1. Am-avissem, I might, he. have loved, 

2. Am-avisses, Thou ?nightst,&e. have loved, 

3. Am-avisset, He might, &c. have loved; 
P. 1. Am-avissemus, We might, &c. have lomd, 

2. Am-avissetis, Ye might, &c. have loved, 

3. Am-avissent, They might, he. have loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD, § 42. 
Sing. 2. Am-a, or am-ato. Love thou, 

3. Am-ato, Let him love; 

Plur. 2. Am-ate, or am-atote, Love ye, 

3. Am-anto. Let them love. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Am-are, To love, § 47, 11. 

Am-avisse, To have loved, 

Esse am-aturus, -a, -urn. To be about to love, 



Pres. 
Perf. 

FUT. 

F-perf. Fuisse am-aturus, -a, -urn, To have been about to love* 

PARTICIPLES. 
Am-ans, Loving, 



Pres. 

FUT. 



Am-attirus, -a, -urn, 

GERUNDS. 
Nom. Am-andum, 
Gen, Am-andi, 
Dat. Am-ando, 
Ace. Am-andum, 
Abl. Am-ando, 



About to love. 

Loving, 

Of loving, 

To loving, 

Loving, 

With from, &c. loving. 



SUPINES. 
Am-atum, 
Am-atu, 



Pres. 

Imp. 

Per/. 

Plup. 

Put. 

F. perf. 

Cre-o, 
Voc-o, 
Dom-o, 



To love. 

To be loved, to love. 
of the Moods and Tenses. 
Infinitive. 
Ama re, 



Subjunctive. 
Amem, 
Ama rem, 
Amaverim, 
Amavissem 



Imp. 
Ama 



Former 
Latter, 

Synopsis 
Indicative, 
Amo, 
Amabam, 
Amavi, 
Ama ve ram, 
Amabo, 
Amavero. 

After the same manner inflect, 
cre-are cre-avi, cre-atum, 
voc-are, voc-avi s voc-atum, 
dom-are, dom-iii, dom-itum, 



Amavisse, 

Esse amaturus 
Fuisse amaturus. 



Participle, 
Amans. 



Amaturus. 



To create. 
To call. 
To tame. 



§ 57 THE VERB. FIRST CONJUGATION. 113 

6 57. EXERCISES ON THE FIRST CONJUGATION, 
ACTIVE VOICE. 

1. Give the designation of the verb, conjugate it, give the tense, — 
mood, — voice,— f/er son, — number and translation of the following 
words, always observing the same order; thus, — Amo, Verb, active, 
first, amo, amare, amavi, amatum. It is found in the present, ind. ac- 
tive; first person singular, " I love." " I do love," ft I am loving." 

Amabat, amaverat, amet, amaveritis, amabunt, creavimus, 
creaverat, domuerat, domuisset, amavero, domuero, vocave- 
rim, voca, vocare, doma, creavisse, domuisse, amaturus, do- 
miturus, amans, amandum, amatu, domitum, domabam, doma- 
bo, — creat, crearet, amaret, amavisti, amavere, domuistis, 
amato, amando, amaverunt, creare, vocaverunt, vocaverint, 
vocabunt, vocaretis, domabitis, &c. &c. ad libitum. 

2. Translate the following English words into Latin, giving the 
part of the verb used; thus, — " I was loving," amabam, in the im- 
perfect indicative aet. first person singular. 

He will love, I mijht love, I had loved, I might have lov- 
ed, he shall love, I may love, he created, I called, I may have 
called, he will tame, he has tamed, he would have tamed, love 
thou, let them love, to love, about to love, of loving, to have 
loved, they were loving, they have loved, thou hast creat- 
ed, thou hast tamed, &c. ad libitum. 

3. The Infinitive with a subject. The infinitive after another verb, 
and with an accusative before it as its subject, is translated into Eng- 
lish in the indicative or potential mood ; and the accusative in Latin 
is made the nominative in English j as dicit me amare, u he says that 
I love." The accusatives are thus translated ; 

me, that I ; nos, that we j hominem, that the man. 

te, that thou j vos, that you ; homines, that the men, 

ilium, that he; illos, that they; feminas, that the women. 
Infinitives after verbs of the present, past and future tenses, are 
rendered as in the examples, § 47- 11 ; or according to the following 
rules ; viz. 

Rule I. When the preceding verb is of the present or future tense, 
the present infinitive is translated as the present indicative ; the perfect 
infinitive as the perfect indicative ; and the future infinitive as the fu- 
ture indicative, §47. 11. Nos. 1. 4. 7. also 3- 6. 9. 

Rule II. When the preceding verb is in past time, (i. e. in the im- 
perfect, perfect, or pluperfect tense,) the present infinitive is transit 

10* 



114 THE VERB. — FIRST CONJUGATION. § 58 

ted as the imperfect, or perfect indicative ; the perfect infinitive as the 
pluperfect indicative ; and the future infinitive as the imperfect sub- 
junctive, §47. 11. Nos. 2 , 5, 9. 

Rule III. The Future perfect of the infinitive with a subject is al- 
ways translated as the pluperfect subjunctive, whatever be the tense of 
the preceding verb , § 47. 11. Nos. 10. 11. 12. 

4. According to the preceding rules and the examples referred to, 
translate the following sentences into English — observing that dicit, 
li he says," is present time ; dixit, " he said," past; and dicet. " he 
will say," future. 

Dicit me vocare, — teamare, — nos amavisse, — vos amaturos 
esse, — nos amaturos fuisse, illos domare, — te amaturum esse. 

Dixit me vocare, — te amare, — nos amavisse — nos amaturos 
esse, — nos amaturos fuisse, — vos domare, — te amaturum esse. 

Dixit nos vocare, dicet ilium creare, dicit te creaturum 
esse, dixit amaturum, (§ 47. Note 1.) dicit illos creaturos, 
ilium vocaturum, vos domituros esse, domituros fuisse, &c. 

5. Translate the following English into Latin, taking care to put 
the participle of the future infinitive in the same gender, number, and 
case, as the accusative preceding it. 

He said that I loved, — that I was calling. He says that 
they will tame, — that I would have created, — that they will 
call, — that he loves. He will say that I love, — that I have 
loved, — that I will love. He said that I had called, — that 
they would have called, — that they tamed, — that they would 
tame, — that he would have tamed, &c. 



$ 58, PASSIVE VOICE. 



Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. 
Amor, Amari, 


Perf. Part. 
Amatus, To be loved, 


INDICATIVE 


MOOD 


Present Tense, am 


loved, $44. 1. 6. 


S. 1. Am-or, 

2. Am-aris, or -are, 

3. Am-atur , 


I am loved, 
Thou art loved. 
He is loved ; 


P. 1. Am-amur, 

2. Am-amini, 

3. Am-antur. 


We are loved, 
Ye are loved, 
They are loved. 



§ 58 THE VERB. FIRST CONJUGATION. 115 

Imperfect, was loved, § 44. II. 4. 

S. 1. Am-abar, I was loved, 

2. Am-abaris, or -abare, Thou wast loved, 

3. Am-abatur, He was loved; 
P. 1. Am-abamur, We were loved, 

2, Am-abamini, Ye were loved, 

3. Am-abantur, They were loved. 

Perfect, have been loved, was loved, am loved, § 43. III. 5. 

S. 1. Am-atus # sum, or fui, I have been loved, &c. 

2. Am-atus es, or fuisti, Thou hast been loved, 

3. Am-atus est, or fait, ile has been loved; 
P. 1. Am-ati sumus, or fuimus, We have been loved, 

2. Am-ati. estis, or fuistis, Ye have been loved, 

3. Am-ati sunt, fuerunt, or fueYe,They have been loved. 

Pluperfect, had been loved, § 43. IV. 2. and Note. 

S. 1. Am-atus eram, or fueram, I had been loved, 

2. Am-atus eras, or fueras, Thou hadst been loved, 

3. Am-atus erat, or fuerat, He had been loved; 
P. 1. Am-ati eramus, orfueramus, We had been loved, 

2. Am-ati eratis, or fueratis, Ye had been loved, 

3. Am-ati erant, or fuerant, They had been loved. 







Future, syWZ, 


or will be loved. 


s. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Am-abor, 

Am-aberis, or -abere, 
Am-abitur, 


I shall, or will be loved, 
Thou shalt, or wilt be loved, 
He shall, or will be loved; 


p 


. I. 
2. 
3. 


Am-abimur, 
Am-abimini, 
Am-abuntur, 


We shall, or will be loved, 
Ye shall, or will be loved, 
They shall, or will be loved. 






Future-perfect, shall 


, or will have been loved. 


s. 


1. 
2. 
3. 


Am-atus fuero, # 
Am-atus fueris, 
Am-atus fuerit, 


I shall have been loved, 
Thou ivilt have been loved, 
He will have been loved; 


p 


, 1. 

2, 
3. 


Am-ati fuerimus, 
Am-ati fueritis, 
Am-ati fuerint, 


We shall have been loved, 
Ye will have been loved, 
They will have been loved. 



See § 44. III. 6. Note. Fui and fuisti, are very seldom found with 
the Perfect Participle. Ero, as well as fu&ro, is used in the Future- 
Perfect . 



116 THE VERB. FIRST CONJUGATION. § 58 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, may, or can be loved. 

S. 1. Am-er, I may, or can be loved, 

2. Am-eris, or -ere, Thou mayest or canst be loved. 

3. Am-etur, He may, or can be loved ; 
P. 1. Am-emur, We may, or can be loved, 

2. Am-emini, Ye may, or can be loved, 

3. Am-entur. They may, or can be loved. 

Imperfect, might, could, would, or should be loved. 
S. 1. Am-arer, I might, &c. be loved, 

2. Am-areris, or -arere, Thou mightst, &c. be loved, 

3. Am-aretur, He might, &c. be loved; 
P. 1. Am-aremur, We might, &e. 5e loved, 

2. Am-aremmi, Ye might, &c. Z>e Zatfed, 

3. Am-arentur. TAey might, &c. fo &wed. 

Perfect, may have been loved. 

S. Am-atus sim, or fuerim, I may have been loved, 

Am-atus sis, or fueris, Thou mayst ham been loved, 

Am-atus sit, or fuerit, He may have been loved; 

P. Am-ati simus, or fuerimus, We may have been loved, 

Am-ati sitis, or fueritis, Ye may have been loved, 

Am-ati sint, or fuerint. They may have been loved. 

Pluperfect, might, could, ivould, or should have been loved. 

S. Am-atus essem, or fuissem, I might have been loved, 
Am-atus esses, or fuisses, Thou mightst have been loved, 
Am-atus esset, or fuisset, He might have been loved; 

P. Am-ati essemus or fuissemus, We might have been loved, 
Am-ati essetis, or fuissetis, Ye might have been loved, 
Am-ati essent, or fuissent. They might have been loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



Sing. 


2. 


Am-are,or ator, 


Be thou loved, 




3. 


Am-ator, 


Let him be loved; 


Plur. 


2. 


Am-ammi, 


Be ye loved, 




3 


Am-antor, 


Let them be loved 



§59 



THE VERB. FIRST CONJUGATION. 



117 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Am-ari, To be loved. § 47. 11. 

Perf. Esse, or fuisse am-atus, To have been loved. 
Fut. Am-atum iri. To be about to be loved. 



PARTICIPLES. 

Loved, being loved, having 
been loved. 

To be loved, proper, or ne- 
cessary to be loved. 

Synopsis of the Moods and Tenses. 
Indicative. Subjunctive. Imper. Infinitive. Part. 



Perf. Am-atus, -a, -um, 
Fut. Am-andus, -a, -um. 



Pres. Amor, 
Imp. Amabar, 
Perf. Amatus sum, 
Plup. Amatus eram, 
Fut. Amabor, 
F. P. Amatus fuero. 



Amer, 
Amarer, 
Amatus sim, 
Amatus essem. 



Amare 



Amari. 

Esse or fuisse 
amatus 
Amatum iri. 



Amatus, 
Amandus. 



After the same manner inflect, 

Creor, creari, creatus, To be created. 

Vocor, vocari, vocatus, To be called. 

Domor, domari, domitus, To be tamed. 



$ 59. EXERCISES ON THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

1. Give the designation of the verb, — conjugate it, — give the tense, 
mood, voice, person, number, and translation of the following words, 
always following the same order; thus, — Amor. Verb, active, first 
Amo, amare, amavi, amatum, — found in the present ind. passive, first 
person sing. " I am loved." 

Amabatur, amantur, amatus est, amabitur, amabar, amare- 
tur, amentur, amatus sim, amatus fuero, amati fuerunt, amati 
essemus, amabammi, amaris, amatus esset, amati fuissent, 
amabuntur, amantor, amare, amatus esse, amatus, amatum 
iri, amandus, amemmi, amaremmi, amantur, creatur, crearS- 
tur, vocabitur, domantur, vocatus sum ; &c. 

2. Translate the following English words into Latin, giving the 
part of the verb used; thus. u I am loved," Amor. — in the pres. 
ind. pass, first person, sing. 

He is loved, they are loved, I have been loved, they were 



118 THE VERB FIRST CONJUGATION. § 59 

created, he had been called, they will be tamed, I might be 
loved, they may have been loved, to be loved, to have been 
called, I had been called, being called, they are tamed, they 
have been tamed, he will be- loved, they will have been 
loved, they may be called, I may be called, he might have 
been created, they will be loved, &c. 

3. Translate the foil owing sentences into English, according to the 
rules, § 57. 3. 

Dicit eum amari, illos vocatos esse, me vocatum iri, te 
amatum iri, me creari, eos domari, ilium amatum fuisse, nos 
domitos esse, nos domitum iri, illos amari, illos vocatum iri, 

Dixit eum amare, illos vocatos esse, me vocatum iri, te 
amatum iri, me creari, eos domari, ilium amatum fuisse, nos 
domitos esse, nos domitum iri, illos amari, illos vocatum iri, 
te amari. Dicet eum amari, &c. as in the preceding. 

4. Translate the following English into Latin, taking care that the 
participle of the perfect infinitive be put in the same gender, number 
and case, as the accusative before it. 

He says that I am loved, that he was loved, that he will 
be called, that they were created, that we were tamed. He 
said that I was called, that we were created, that they had 
been created. He will say that I was loved, that I will be 
loved, that they will be called, that you are called, that he 
will be called. He said that they had been tamed. &c. 

Promiscuous Exercises on the Active and Passive 
Voice. 
5. Give the designation, &c. as directed, No. 1. Amabo, 
amarem, amaretur, amatus sim, amant, vocatur, crearentur, 
domantur, domitum iri, creari, amant, amabuntur, amarent, 
amavissent, amaverat, ametis, amatis, amabatis, amaveris, 
ama, amavisse, amandum, amatur, vocatum iri, vocatus es, 
vocati erant, vocatus esset, {dicit se, " he says that he,") 
amatur um esse, (dixit se, "he said that he, 3 ') amare, amari, 
(nos, that we,) vocatos esse, amanto, amabunt, amavistis, 
amavere, amaretis. 

Conjugate the following verbs like Amo ; viz. 
Accuso, I accuse, Certo, I strive, Reparo, I repair, 

iEstluio, lvalue, Cogito, I think, Rogo, I ask, 

Ambulo, I walk, Festino, I hasten, Servo, I keep, 

Curo, I care, Navigo, I sail, Vito, I shun. 



§ 60 THE VERB— SECOND CONJUGATION. 119 

§ 60. SECOND CONJUGATION. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. Supine. 

Moneo. monere, monui, monitum, To advise. 

INDICATIVE MOOD, 

Present Tense, / advise, do advise, am advising, S> 44. I. 

S. 1. Mon-eo, I advise, do advise, &c. 

2. Mon-es, Thou advisest, dost advise, &c. 

3. Mon-et, He advises, does advise, &c ; 
P. 1. Mon-emus. We advise, do advise, &c. 

2. Mon-etis, Ye advise, do advise, &c. 

3* Mon-ent, They advise, do advise, &c. 

Imperfect, advised, did advise, was advising, § 44. II. 

S. 1. Mon-ebam, I advised, did advise, &c 

2. Mon-ebas, Thou advisedst, didst advise, &c. 

3. Mon-ebat, He advised, did advise, &c; 
P. 1. Mon-ebamus, We advised, did advise, &c. 

2. Mon-ebatis, Ye advised, did advise, &c. 

3. Mon-ebant, They advised, did advise, &c. 

Perfect, Def. have advised, Indef. advised; did advise, § 44. III. 

S. 1 . Monu-i, / have advised, &c. 

2. Monu-isti, Thou hast advised, &c. 

3. Monu-it, He has advised, &c ; 
P. 1. Monu-imus, We have advised, &e. 

2. Monu-istis, Ye have advised, &c. 

3. Monu-erunt, or -ere. They have advised, &c. 

Pluperfect, had advised, § 44. IV. 

S. 1. Monu-eram, I had advised, 

2. Monu-eras, Thou hadst advised, 

3. Monu-erat, He had advised; 
P. 1. Monu-eramus, We had advised, 

2, Monu-eratis, Ye had advised, 

3. Monu-erant, They had advised. 



120 



THE VERB SECOND CONJUGATION. 



§60 



Future, shall, or will advise. 



S. 1. 
2. 
3. 

P. 1. 
2. 
3. 



Mon-ebo, 

Mon-ebis, 

Mon-ebit, 

Mon-ebimus, 

Mon-ebitis, 

Mon-ebunt, 



I shall, or will advise, 
Thou shalt, or wilt advise* 
He shall, or will advise ; 
We shall, or will advise, 
Ye shall, or xoill advise, 
They shall, or will advise. 



Future-perfect, shall, or will have advised, § 44. V. 



S. 1. Monu-ero, 

2. Monu-eris, 

3. Monu-erit, 
P. 1. Monu-erimus, 

2. Monu-eritis, 

3. Monu-erint, 



I shall, or ivill have advised, 
Thou shalt, or wilt have advised, 
He shall, or will have advised; 
We shall, or ivill have advised, 
Ye shall, or will have advised, 
They shall, or will have advised. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, may or can advise, § 45. 



I 



S. 1. Mon-eam, 

2. Mon-eas, 

3. Mon-eat, 
P. 1. Mon-eamus, 

2. Mon-eatis, 

3. Mon-eant, 



Imperfect, might 
S. 1. Mon-erem, 



I may, or can advise, 
Thou mayest, or canst advise, 
He may, or can advise; 
We may, or can advise, 
Ye may, or can advise, 
They may, or can advise. 

could* tvould, or should advise, § 45 

I might, could, &c. advise, 
Thou might st, &c. advise, 
He might, &c. advise ; 
We might, &c. advise, 
Ye might, &c. advise, 
They might, &c. advise. 

Perfect, way Aare advised, § 45. III. 
Monu-erim, J way Aare advised, 

2. Monu-eris, TAozz, mayest have advised, 

3. Monu-erit, He may have advised ; 
P. 1. Monu-erimus. We may have advised, 

2. Monu-eritis, Ye way Aare advised, 

3. Monu-erint, TAey may Aare advised. 



IL 



P. 1 
2, 



3. 



S. 1. 



2. Mon-eres, 

3. Mon-eret, 
Mon-eremus, 
Mon-eretis, 
Mon-erent, 



§ 80 



THE VERB* SECOND CONJUGATION. 



121 



Pluperfect, mighty 

S. 1. Monu-issem, 

2. Monu-isses, 

3. Monu-isset, 

P. 1. Monu-issemus, 

2, Monu-issetis, 

3. Monu-issent. 



could, would) or should have advised^ 
§ 45. IV. 

I might, &c. have advised. 
Thou mightst, &c. have advised* 
He might, &c. have advised; 

We might, &c. have advised, 
Ye might, &c. have advised. 
They might, &c, have advised. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD, 
S. 2. Mon-e, or -eto, Advise thou, § 47. 11. 

3. Mon-eto, Let him advise; 

P. 2. Mon-ete, or -etote, Advise ye or you, 

3. Mon-ento. Let them advise, 

INFINITIVE MOOD, 



Pres. Mon-ere, 
Perf. Monu-isse, 
Fut. Esse moniturus, 
F. perf. Fuisse moniturus, 


To advise, §47. 1L 

To have advised, 

To be about to advise, 

To have been about to advise* 




PARTICIPLES. 


Pres. 
Fut. 


Mon-ens 
Mon-iturus, 


Advising, 
About to advise. 




GERUNDS. 


Nom. Mon-endum, 
Gen. Mon-endi, 
Dat. Mon-endo, 
Ace. Mon-endum, 
All. Mon-endo, 


Advising, 

Of advising, 

To advising, 

Advising, 

With, &c. advising. 




SUPINES, 


Former, Mon-itum, 
Latter, Mon-itu. 


To advise, 

To be advised, or to advise. 




Synopsis of the 


Moods and Tenses. 




Indicative. Subjunctive, 


Imper. Infinitive. Part. 


Pres. 

Imp. 

Perf. 

Plup. 

Fut. 

F.P. 


Moneo,' 

Monebam, 

Monui, 

Monueram, 

Monebo, 

Monuero. 


Moneam, 
Monerem, 
Monuerim, 
Monuissem. 


Mone, 


Monere, 

Monuisse, 

Esse moniturus, 
Fuisse moniturus, 


Monens. 
Moniturus. 



11 



VERBS. SECOND CONJUGATION. § 61 

After the same manner inflect. 

Doc-eo, doc-ere, docu-i, doc-tum, To teach. 

Jub-eo, jub-ere, juss-i, jus-sum, To order. 

Vid-eo, vid-ere, vid-i, vi-sum, To see. 



§ 6L EXERCISES ON THE ACTIVE VOICE. 

1. Give the designation, &c, as directed, § 57. 1. — Mone- 
bo, monuit, moneret, monuerit, mone, monuisse, monens, mo- 
nendum, monebat, monent, monento, monuisti, monuere, mo- 
nueratis, monuissent. — Docent, jubebat, jusserat, videret, 
videat, videbit, docueris, doce, docturus, jussurus, visum, jus- 
su, docens, &c. 

2. Translate the following into Latin, &c. as directed, 
§ 57. 2. — I have advised, I will advise, he may advise, I might 
advise, he will have advised, they advise, they had advised, 
they might have advised, thou hast advised, ye have advised, 
I did advise, he was advising. — He teaches, they taught, we 
had ordered, we would have ordered, I saw, I have seen, 
thou wilt see, he may see, they would have ordered, &c. 

3. Translate according to the rules, § 57. 3. 4. — Dicit, 
(he says) me monere, — nos monuisse, — illos monere, vos 
moniiuros esse, me moniturum fuisse. — Dixit (he said) se, 
monere, — nos videre, — eum vidisse, — nos visuros esse, me 
visurum esse, — me visurum fuisse, — vos vidisse, se docere, 
nos dociiisse, vos docturos esse, illam, (that she) visuram 
esse, ilium docturum esse, &c. 

4. As directed, § 57. 3, 5. He says that I advised, he 
said that I advised, that I had advised, that I would advise, 
he says that I will advise, that I would have advised, he said 
that he (se) saw, had seen, would see, would have seen. I 
advise that you should order, he says that I am advising, that 
we will order, &c. 



§ 62. PASSIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf Part. 

Moneor, Moneri, Monitus, To be advised. 



§ 


%£ 


VERBS.— 


-SECOND 


CONJUGATION. 






Present Tense, am 


advised^ § 44. 1. 6. 


s. 


I, 

2. 
3. 


Mon-eor, 
Mon-eris, or -ere, 
Mon-etur, 


I am advised^ 
Thou art advised, 
He is advised \ 


p. 


, 1. 
3. 


Mon-emur, 
Mon-emmi, 
Mon-entur, 




We are advised. 
Ye are advised) 
They are advised. 






Imperfect, 


was advised^ § 44, II. 4. 


s. 


1. 

3. 


Mon-ebar, 
Mon-ebaris, or 
Mon-ebatur, 


-ebare, 


I was advised) 
Thou wast advised) 
He was advised ; 


p 


. 1. 
2. 
3. 


Mon-ebamur, 
Mon-ebamini, 
Mon-ebantur, 




We were advised) 
Ye were advised) 
They were advised. 



123 



Perfect, have been, was, am, § 43. III. 5. 

jS. 1. Mon-itus # sum, or fui, I have been advised, &c. 

2. Mon-itus es, or fuisti, Thou hast been advised) &c. 

3. Mon-itus est, or fuit , He has been advised ; 
P. 1. Mon-iti siimus, or fuimus,TFe have been advised) 

2. Mon-iti estis, or fuistis. Ye have been advised) 

3. Mon-iti sunt, fuerunt,&c. They have been advised. 



Pluperfect, 

Mon-itus eram, or fueram, 
Mon-itus eras, or fueras, 
Mon-itus erat, or fuerat , 
, Mon-iti eramus, or fueramus, 
Mon-iti eratis, or fueratis, 
Mon-iti erant, or fuerant. 



Fin 



shall, 



1. Mon-ebor, 

2. Mon-eberis, or -ebere, 

3. Mon-ebitur, 

, 1. Mon-ebimur, 

2. Mon-ebimmi, 

3. Mon-ebuntur. 



had been. 

I had been advised, 
Thou hadst been advised. 
He had been advised; 
We had been advised, 
Ye had been advised. 
They had been advised. 

or will be, 

I shall or will be advised) 
Thou shall ,or wilt be advised. 
He shall, or will be advised; 
We shall) or will be advised. 
Ye shall, or will be advised. 
They shall, or will be advised. 



* See § 44. III. 6. Note. 



124 



THE VERB. SECOND CONJUGATION. 



§62 



Future Perfect, shall, or will have been. 



S. 1. Mon-itus fuero, 

2. Mon-itus fueris, 

3. Mon-itus fuerit, 
P. 1. Mon-iti fuerimus, 

2. Mon-iti fueritis, 

3. Mon-iti fuerint, 



I shall have been advised, 
Than wilt have been advised. 
He will have been advised; 
We shall have been advised, 
Ye will have been advised, 
They will have been advised. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, may, or can be advised. 

1. Mon-ear, I may, or can be advised, 

2. Mon-earis, or -eare, Thou may est, or canst be advised, 

3. Mon-eatur; He may, or can be advised; 

1. Mon-eamur, We may, or can be advised, 

2. Mon-eamini, Ye may, or can be advised, 

3. Mon-eantur, They may, or can be advised* 

Imperfect, might, could, would, or should be. 



S. 1. Mon-erer, 

2. Mon-ereris,o?* -erere, 

3. Mon-eretur , 
P. 1. Mon-eremur, 

2. Mon-eremini, 

3. Mon-erentur, 



I might, &c. be advised, 
Thou mightst, &c. be advised, 
He might, &c. be advised; 
We might, Sec. be advised, 
Ye might, &c. be advised, 
They might, &c. be advised. 



Perfect, may have been advised. 
Monitus sim, or fuerim, 1" may have been advised, 



Monitus sis, or fueris, 
Monitus sit, or fuerit , 
Moniti simus, or fuerimus, 
Moniti sitis, or fueritis, 
Moniti sint, or fuerint, 



Thou may est have been advised, 
He may have been advised; 
We may have been advised, 
Ye may have been advised. 
They may have been advised. 



Pluperfect, might, could, would, or should have been. 

Monitus essem, or fuissem, I might &c. have been advised, 

Monitus esses, or fuisses, Thoumightst have been advised, 

Monitus esset, or fuisset , He might have been advised; 

Moniti essemus, or fuissemus, We might have been advised, 

Moniti essetis, or fuissetis, Ye might have been advised, 

Moniti essent, or fuissent, They might have been advised. 



§63 



THE VERB. 



-SECOND CONJUGATION. 



125 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



S. 2. Mon-ere, or -etor, 

3. Mon-etor, 
P. 2. Mon-emmi, 

3. Mon-entor. 



Be thou advised. 
Let him be advised; 
Be ye advised, 
Let them be advised. 



INFINITIVE MOOD, 



Pres. Mon-eri? 

Perf. Esse, or fuisse monitus, 

Fut. Mon-itum iri, 



To be advised, § 47. 11, 
To have been advised, 
To be about to be advised. 



PARTICIPLES 
Perf. Mon-itus,-a,-um, 

Fut. Mon-endus, -a,-um, \ to be advised, proper, ox m- 

I cessary to be advised* 



( advised, being advised, or 
( having been advised, 



Pres. 

Imp. 

Perf. 

Plup. 

Fut. 

F.P, 



Synopsis of the Moods and Tenses. 

Indicative, Subjunctive. hnper. Infinitive, 
Moneor, [Monear, Monere. Moneri, 

Monebar, Monerer, 

Monitus sum, Monitus sum, 
Moaltus eram Monitus essem 



Monebor, 
Monitus fuero 



Esse, or fu- 
isse monitus, 
Monltum iri. 



Part 

Monitus ; 
Monendus. 



Doeeor, 
Jubeor. 
Videor, 



After the same manner inflect, 

doceri, doetus, To be taught 



juberi, 
videri, 



jussus, 
visus, 



To be ordered. 
To be seen. 



§ 63. EXERCISES ON THE PASSIVE VOICE. 

1. Give the designation, &c. as directed, § 59. 1. Mone- 
or, monetur, rnonebatur, monebitur, monitus est, moniti es- 
tis, moneamur, moneretur, monitus fuero, monere, moneri, 
monitus, monitus esse, monendus. Videretur, visus, visum 
iri, docerentur, doceantur, doeemini, doceammi, jubebitur, 
jussi fuerunt,,juberentur, jubetor, &e. 



THE VERB. SECOND CONJUGATION. § 



63 



2. Translate the following into Latin, as directed § 59.2. 
I was advised, he has been advised, — he may be advised, we 
will be advised, Ave were advised, I am advised, they might 
have been advised. Be ye advised, to be about to be advis- 
ed, to be advised, he may have been seen, — they should be 
ordered, we will be seen, they will be taught, having been 
taught, necessary to be taught, let them be taught ; they have 
been ordered, we might have been ordered, to be about to be 
ordered, being ordered, they may have been ordered, &c. 

Promiscuous Exercises on the Second Conjugation. 

3. Give the designation, &c. as directed, § 57. 1 ; § 59. 1. 
Monebam, monuerat, monuerit, monebunt, moneam, mone, 
monebar, monitus es, monuit, moneri, doctus sum, docear, 
docerer, docebitur, docento, docentor, docentur, jubet, jus- 
serunt, jusserint, jubebo, juberentur, jussus esse, jube, vi- 
deo, vident, videretur, vide, vidistis, videratis, viderent, vi- 
dero, videndum, videns, vistirus, vidisse, visum iri, videri, 
monebuntur. moneantur, viderentur, jusserim, jubebam, ju- 
berer, videntur, docuerunt, doce, docens. 

4. Translate the folloioing into Latin, as directed, § 57. 2. 
I am advised, he advises, thej^ will advise, ye have advised, 
they will have advised, he will be advised, he is taught, he 
has taught, they will teach, I will see, they may see, they 
are seen, he has been seen, to order, to have been ordered, 
ordering, about to order, to have seen, I might see, I might 
have tfeen seen, they will not (non) see, he will not see, I 
do not advise, he is teaching, he is not teaching, he will not 
order, I will order, &c. 

5. As directed, § 57. 3 and 4. Dicit se monere, — nos monu- 
isse, — eum monittirum esse, — vos videre,- — eum visum iri ; 
Dixit se monere, — nos monuisse, — eum moniturum esse, 
vos videre, eum visum iri. Dicet se monere, &c. vos monu- 
isse, homines monituros esse, feminam monituram esse, vos 
jubere. 

6. As directed, § 57. 5. He says that he advises, — that 
he will advise, — that we have advised. He said that I ad- 
vised, that he had advised, that they would have advised, that 
we will order, would have ordered, would have been order- 
ed, was taught, had been taught, would have been taught, &c. 



§ 64 THE VERB. THIRD CONJUGATION. 127 

$ 64. THIRD CONJUGATION. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. Supine. 
Reg-o, reg-ere, rex-i, rect-um, To rule. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, rule, do rule, am ruling, §44. 1. 

$. 1. Reg-o, I rule, do rule, am ruling, 

2. Reg--is, # Thou rulest, dost rule, art ruling, 

3. Reg-it, He rules, does rule, is ruling ; 
P. 1. Re^-imus, We rule, do rule, are ruling, 

2. Re^-itis, Ye rule, do rule, are ruling, 

3. Reg-unt, They rule, do rule, are ruling. 

Imperfect, ruled, did rule, was ruling, § 44. II. 

S. 1. Re^-ebam, I ruled, did rule, was ruling, 

2. Reg-- ebas , Thou ruledst, didst rule, wast ruling, 

3. Reg-ebat, He ruled, did rule, ivas ruling ; 
P. 1. Reg'-ebamus, We ruled, did rule, were ruling, 

2. Reg-ebatis, Ye ruled, did rule, were ruling, 

3. Re^-ebant, They ruled, did rule, were ruling. 

Perfect, Def. have ruled, Indef. ruled, did rule, § 44. III. 

S. 1. Rex-i, I have ruled, ruled, did rule, 

2. Rex-isti, Thou hast ruled, ruledst, didst rule, 

3. Rex-it, He has ruled, ruled, did rule ; 
P. 1. Rex-imus, We have ruled, ruled, did rule, 

2. Rex-istis, Ye have ruled, ruled, did rule, 

3. Rex-erunt, or -ere, They have ruled, ruled, did rule. 

Pluperfect, had ruled. § 44. IV. 

S. 1. Rex-eram, I had ruled, 

2. Rex- eras, Thou hadst ruled, 

3. Rex-erat, He had ruled ; 
P« 1. Rex-eramus, We had ruled, 

2. Rex-eratis, Ye had ruled, 

3. Rex-erant, They had ruled. 

* C and g are hard before a, o, u; and soft like 5 andj before e 
and i. Soft g is here marked in Italics, and sounds like j. 




128 THE VERB. THIRD CONJUGATION. 

Future, shall \ or will rule, § 44. V. 

S. 1. Reg-am, I shall, or will rule, 

2. Re g-es, Thou shalt, or wilt rule, 

3. Reg'-et, He shall, or will rule ; 
P. 1. Re^-emus, We shall, or will rule, 

2. Reg-etis, Ye shall, or will rule, 

3. Reg--ent, They shall, or will rule. 

Future-perfect, shall, or will have ruled, § 44. VI. 

S. 1. Rex-ero, I shall, or vnll have ruled, 

2. Rex-eris, TAom sAaZf, or wilt have ruled, 

3. Rex-erit, He shall, or we'ZZ have ruled; 
P. 1. Rex-erimus, We sA<2ZZ, or zWZZ /zare ruled, 

2. Rex-eritis, Ye shall, or will have ruled, 

3. Rex-erint, TAey sAaZZ, or 2^z7Z have ruled. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, may, or can rule, § 45. I. 

S. 1. Reg-am, I may, or can rule, 

2. Reg-as, TAow mayest, or c#?2s£ r&Ze, 

3, Reg-at, He may, or ca?z rule ; 
P. 1. Reg-anius, We may, or c<272 r&Ze, 

2. Reg-atis, Ye way, or can rule, 

3, Reg-ant, TAey may, or ca?z ?*wZe. 

Imperfect might, could, would, or should rule, § 45. II. 

S. 1. Re^-erem, I might, &c. rule, 

2. Reg-eres, Thou mightst, &c. r&&, 

3. Reg-eret. He might, &c. n^Ze; 
P. 1. Re^-eremus, We might, &c. ?'&Ze, 

2. Reg-eretis, Ye might, &c. rz^Ze, 

3. Reo-erent, They might, &c. ?*wZe. 

Perfect, may have ruled, § 45. III. 

S. 1. Rex-erim, I may have ruled, 

2. Rex-eris, TAozz; mayest have ruled, 

3. Rex-erit, iZe way Aaye ruled; 
P. 1. Rex-erimus, We way Aave rwZed, 

2. Rex-eritis, Ye ??2ay Aaye ruled, 

3. Rex-erint, TAey wa2/ Aare ruled. 



§64 



THE VERB. — THIRD CONJUGATION. 



129 



Pluperfect, might, could, would, or should have ruled* 
§45. IV. 



S. 1. Rex-issem, 

2. Rex-isses, 

8. Rex-isset, 

P. 1. Rex-issemus, 

2. Rex-issetis, 

3. Rex-issentj 



I mighty &c. have ruled, 
Thou might st, &c. have ruled, 
He might, &c. have ruled; 
We might, &c. have ruled, 
Ye might, &c. have ruled, 
They might, &c. have ruled. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD, § 42. 

S. 2. Re^-e, or -ito, ifoZe thou, 

3. Re^-ito, Le£ fo'wi rule; 

P. 2. Re^-ite, or itote, Rule ye, 

3. Reg-unto, Let them rule. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Pres. 
Perf. 
Fut. 
F.Perf, 



Pres 
Fut, 



Re^-ere, 
Rex-isse, 

Esse recttirus, 
Fuisse recturus, 



To rule, § 47. 11. 

To have ruled, 

To be about to rule, 

To have been about to rule. 



PARTICIPLES. 



Reg-ens, 
Rect-urus, -a, -um, 



Ruling, 
About to rule* 



Nom. 

Gen. 

Bat. 

Ace. 

Abl. 



Reg-endum, 

Reg-endi, 

Reg--endo, 

Reg-endum, 

Reg-endo, 



Former, Rect-um, 
Latter, Rect-u, 



GERUNDS. 
Ruling, 
Of ruling, 
To ruling, 
Ruling, 
With, &e. ruling. 

SUPINES. 
To rule, 
To be 7-uled, of to rule. 



Synopsis of the Moods and Tenses. 



Pres. 

Imp, 
Perf. 
Plup. 
Fut. 



Indicative. 

Rego, 

Regebam, 

Rexi, 

Rexeram, 

Regam, 



F.perf. Rexero, 



Subj. 
Regam, 
Regerem, 
Rexerim, 
Rexissem. 



Imper. 
Rege. 



Infinitive. 
Regere, 

Rexisse, 

Esse recturus, 
Fuisse recturus. 



Participles, 
Regens, 



Recturus, 



130 



THE VERB. THIRD CONJUGATION. 



§64 



After the same manner inflect. 

Lego, legere, legi, lectum. To read* 

Scribo, scribere, scripsi, scriptum, To tvrite. 

Caedo, eaedere, cecidi, cassum, To slay. 



EXAMPLE OF VERBS IN -10. ACTIVE VOICE ; 

Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. Supine. 

Capio. capere, cepi, captum, To take. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Singula?'. Plural. 

Pres. Cap-io, -is, -it; -mius, -itis, -lunt. 

Imp. Capi-ebam, -ebas, -ebat; -ebamus, -ebatis, -ebant. 

Perf. Cep-i, -isti, -it; -lmus, -istis, jl - 

P lup. Ce-p-erenn, -eras, -erat; -eramus, -eratis, -erant. 
Put. Capi-am, -es, -et; -emus, -etis, -ent. 
P.P. Cep-ero, -eris, -erit; -erimus, -eritis, -erint. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Capi-am, -as, -at, -amus, -atis, -ant. 

Imp. Cap-erem, -eres, -eret, -eremus, -eretis, -erent. 

Perf Cep-erim, -eris, -erit, -erimus, -eritis, -erint. 

Plup. Cep-issem, -isses, -isset, -issemus. -issetis, -issent. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD 
Pres. Cap-e or -lto, lto ; -ite or -ltote, -lunto. 



INFINITIVE. 



Present, Cap- ere, 

Perfect, Cep-isse, 

Future, Esse capturus. 

F. Perfect, Fuisse capturus. 



PARTICIPLES. 



Present, Capiens. 
Future, Capturus -a,-um. 



GERUNDS. 



N. Capi-endum, 
G. Capi-endi, &c. 

So also Rapio, rapere, 
Fugio, fugere, 



SUPINES. 

Former, Captum, 
Latter, Captu. 

rapui, raptum, To seize. 
fugi, fugitum, To flee. 



§ 66 THE VERB— THIRD CONJUGATION. 131 

§ 65. EXERCISES ON THE ACTIVE VOICE. 

Give the designation. Sec. as directed, § 57. 1. — Regebam, 
rexisti, regeram, regam, regerem, rexero, rexisset, rege, rex- 
isse, regens. Scribit, scribebat, scripsit, scribemus, scriba- 
mus, legunt, legeret, leget, lege, legerunt, legerant. Capi- 
unt, capiebat, capiunto, caperem, cepit, ceperim, ceperam, 
cepissem, capit, capere, capiendum, &c. 

2. Translate the following into Latin, as directed, § 57. 
2. — He rules, we are ruling, he has ruled, we will rule, 
they will have ruled, ye might rule, they may rule, we will 
rule, they were ruling, he had ruled, they might have ruled. 
He has read, they will read, we shall read, to have read, to 
have written, to write, writing, write thou, let them write. 

3. Translate according to the Rules, § 57. 3. 4. (Dicit 
he says,) me regere, me scribere, se rexisse, nos recturos 
esse, ilium scripsisse, me scripturum fuisse, vos lecttiros 
esse, nos capi, vos cepisse, vos capturos esse, vos captu- 
ros fuisse, (Dicit, he said, ) me regere, me rexisse, me rec- 
turum esse, &c. 

4. As directed, § 57. 4 — 5. He says that I rule, that he 
ruled, that we write, that they will write, that he is about 
to write. He writes that he rules, that you are reading, that 
you will write. He said that he was writing, that you had 
written, that we would write, would have written. He will 
say that I am ruling, was ruling, will rule, &c. 



§ 66 PASSIVE VOICE. 

Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf Part, 
Reg-or, Reg-i, Rectus, To be ruled. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, am ruled, § 44. I. 6. 

S. 1. Reg-or, I am ruled, 

2. Reg-ens, or -ere, Thou art ruled, 

3, Reg-itur, He is ruled ; 
P. 1. Reg-imur, We are ruled, 

2. Reg-imini, Ye are ruled, 

3. Reg-untor, They are ruled. 



132 THE VERB — THIRD CONJUGATION. § 66 

Imperfect, was ruled, § 44. II. 4. 

S. 1. Reg-ebar, I was ruled, 

2. Reg*-ebaris, or -ebare, Thou wast ruled^ 

3. Reg--ebatur, He was ruled ; 
P. 1. Reg--ebamur, We were ruled, 

2. Reg--ebamini Ye were ruled, 

3. Reg-ebantur. They were ruled. 

Perfect, have been ruled, was ruled, am ruled, § 44. III. 5. 

S, 1. Rectus sum, or fui, I have been ruled, 

2. Rectus es, or fuisti. Thou hast been ruled. 

3. Rectus est, or fuit, He has been ruled; 
P. 1. Recti siimus, or fuimus, We have been ruled, 

2. Recti estis, or fuistis, Ye have been ruled, 

3. Recti sunt, fuerunt, or fuere, They have been ruled. 

Pluperfect, had been ruled. 

S. 1. Rectus eram, or fueram, I had been ruled, 

2. Rectus eras, or fueras, Thou hadst been ruled, 

3. Rectus erat, or fuerat, He had been ruled : 
P. 1. Recti eramus, or fueramus, We had been ruled. 

2. Recti eratis, or fueratis, Ye had been ruled, 

3. Recti erant, or fuerant, They had been ruled. 

Future, shall, or will be ruled. 

S. 1. Reg-ar, I shall, or ivill be ruled, 

2. Reg-ens, or -ere, Thou shall, or wilt be ruled, 

3. Reg-etur, He shall, or ivill be ruled ; 
P. 1. Reg-emur, We shall, or ivill be ruled, 

2. Reg-emmi, Ye shall, or will be ruled, 

3. Re^-entur, They shall, or will be ruled. 

Future-perfect, shall, or will have been ruled. 

S. 1. Rectus-fuero, I shall, or will have been ruled, 

2. Rectus-fueris, Thou shalt, or wilt have been ruled, 

3. Rectus-fuerit, He shall, or icill have been ruled ; 
P. 1. Recti-fuerimus, We shall, or will have been ruled, 

2. Recti-fueritis, Ye shall, or will have been ruled, 

3. Recti-fuerint, They shall, or will have been ruled. 



§ 66 THE VERB. THIRD CONJUGATION. 133 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD, 
Present tense, may or can be ruled. 

5, 1. Reg-ar, I may, ox can be ruled, 

2. Reg-aris, or -are, Thou may est, or canst be ruled, 

3. Reg-atur, He may, or can be ruled ; 
P. 1 , Reg-amur, We may, or can be ruled^ 

2. Reg-ammi. Ye may, or can be ruled, 

8. Reg-antur, They may, or can be ruled* 

Imperfect, might, could, would*, or should be* 
S. 1. Reg-erer, I might, &c. be ruled \ 

2. Reg-ereris, or-erere. Thou mightst, &c. be ruled) 

3. Reg-eretur, He might, &c. be ruled; 
P, 1. Reg-eremur, We might, &c. be ruled, 

2, Reg-eremini, Ye might, &c. oe ruled, 

3. Reg-erentur, TAey might, &e. 5c ruled. 

Perfect, ?/2ay A#te oee/z, 
>S. 1. Rectus-sim, or fuerim, I may have been ruled, 

2. Rectus-sis, or fueris, Thou ??iay est have been ruled. 

3. Rectus-sit, or fuerit, He way Aare oecn rz^ed ; 
P. 1. Recti-simus, or fuerimus, We may have been ruled, 

2. Recti-sitis, or fueritis, Ye may^havt beenruled, 

3. Recti-sint, or fuerint, They may have been ruled. 
Pluperfect, might, could, would, or should have been. 

Rectus essem, or fuissem, I might &c. have been ruled, 

Rectus esses, or fuisses, Thou mightst have been ruled, 

Rectus esset, or fuisset, He might have been ruled ; 

Recti essemus, or fuissemus, We might have been ruled, 

Recti essetis, or fuissetis, Ye might have been ruled, 

Recti essent, or fuissent, They might have been ruled. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

S. 2. Reg-- ere, or -iter, Be thou ruled, 

3. Realtor, Let him be ruled; 

P. 2. Re^-immi, Rule ye, 

3. Reg-untor, Let them be ruled. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Pres. Reg-i, To be ruled, §47. 11. 

Perf. Esse, or fuisse rectus, To have been ruled, 
Fut, Rectum iri, To be about to be ruled. 

12 



134 



THE VERB. THIRD CONJUGATION. 



§66 



PARTICIPLES. 

Ruled, being ruled, having be&n 
ruled. 



Perf. Rectus, -a, -urn 

Ftm Regendus. -a, um, j To ^^[^ ° r mCmary *° 



Synopsis of the moods and Tenses. 



Indicative. 
Pres. Regor, 
Imp. Regebar, 
Perf. Rectus sum, 
Plup. Rectus eram. 
Put. Regar, 
.F. P. Rectus fuero 



Subjunctive. 
Regar, 
Regerer, 
Rectus sim, 
Rectus essem, 



Impel'. 
Regere 



Infinitive. 
Regi, 

Esse or fuisse 

rectus, 
Rectum iri 



Participles. 

Rectus. 
Regendus. 



Legor. 

Scribor, 

Candor. 



After the same manner inflect, 

legi, lectus, To be read. 

scribi, scriptus, To be written. 

caedi, caesus. To be slain. 



EXAMPLE OF VERBS IN -10— PASSIVE VOICE 
Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Part. 

Capior, Capi, Captus, To betaken . 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Pres. Cap-ior. 



-ebaris, or 



1 

-lmur, 



2 

•imiiiL 



3 

-luntur 



Imp. Capi-ebar, > gb^re 5 ' "' "®^turj-ebamur, -ebamini_. -ebantur. 

Perf. Captus sum, or fui, captus es, or fuisti, &c. 

Plup. Captus eram, or fueram, captus eras, or fueras, &c. 

^ -eris or 
Fut. Capi-ar, < - ? -etur; -emur, -eminL -entur. 

C -ere, 

F. P. Captus fuero, captus fueris, captus fuerit, &c. 
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



Pres. Capi-ar, \ £™ 
Imp. Cap-erer, ^ ]?* ( P 



-atur, -amur, 



-eretur, 



-eremur, -erexaim. 



antur. 
■erentur. 



erere 

Perf. Captus sim, or fuerim, captus sis, or fueris. &c. 
Pltjp. Captus essem, or fuissem, captus esses, or fuisses, &c, 
IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
2 3 2 3 

Pres. Cap-ere, or -ltor, -itor; -imini, -iuntor 



§ 67 THE VERB. THIRD CONJUGATION. 135 

INFINITIVE PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Cap-i. Perf. Captus, -a, -um. 

Perf. Esse, or fuisse captus. Fut. Capiendus, -a, -um. 
Fut. Captum iri. 

So also Rapior, rapi, raptus, To be seized* 



§ 67. EXERCISES ON THE PASSIVE VOICE. 

1. Give the designation, &c. as directed, § 59. 1. — Regl- 
tur, regetur, regimmi, rectus est, rectus fuerit, regerer, re- 
gar, regor, regere, reguntor, rectus, rectum iri, rectus esse, 
regi, regebatur, reguntur, regentur, rectus sim, rectus esset, 
Capiar, capiuntur, capiuntor, capiebatur, captus sum, &c. 

2. Translate the following into Latin, as directed, § 59. 
2,— He is ruled, I was ruled, they will be ruled, they have 
been ruled,' we might be ruled, he might have been ruled, 
they were ruled, ye had been ruled, to have been ruled, be- 
ing ruled, to be ruled, let them be ruled. — They are taken, 
they will be taken, let them be taken, they have been taken, 
he will be taken, they might be taken, be thou taken, &c. 

Promiscuous Exercises on the Third Conjugation. 

3. Give the designation, &c. as directed, § 57. 1; or § 59. 
1. — -Regebat, rexerunt, rexerat, reget, rexit, rexerint, legit, 
legit, leget, legat, legerit, scripserit, scripsisse, scribitur, 
scriptus est, scriptum iri, legi, legere, legisse, rexisse, leetus 
esse, legitor, rectus, regens, scriptiirus, scribendus, lectu, 
scribere, scripsere, legere, legere, legimmi, capiunt, capiun- 
tor, captus sum, capitur, capitor, ceperunt, ceperint, scrip* 
turn esse, rexi, regi, regam, regeret, &c. 

4. Translate the following into Latin, as directed, § 57. 
2, or § 59. 2. — I rule, I am ruled, he rules, they are ruled, 
they have ruled, they have been ruled, they will rule, he 
might rule, they might be ruled, we will read, he may have 
been taken, they will have been ruled, he might have writ- 
ten, to be ruled, rule thou, let him be ruled, they were 
writing, they might write, to have written, to have read, to 
have ruled, to have taken, they had written, had ruled, had 
read, had taken. 



136 THE VERB. — FOURTH CONJUGATION. § 68 

§ 68. FOURTH CONJUGATION. 



ACTIVE VOICE, 

Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. 
Audio, audire, audivi, 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Supine. 
auditum. To hear. 



Present Tense, hear, do hear, am hearing, § 44. I. 



s. 


L Aud-io, 

2. Aud-is, 

3. Aud-it, 


I hear, do hear, am hearing, 

Thou hearest, dost hear, art hearing, 

He hears, does hear, is hearing; 


p. 


1. Aud-imuSj 

2. Aud-itis, 

3. Aud-iunt, 


We hear, do hear, are hearing, 
Ye hear, do hear, are hearing 
They hear, do hear, are hearing. 




Imperfect, heard 


, did hear, was hearing, § 44. II. 


s. 


1. Audi-ebam, 

2. Audi-ebas, 

3. Audi-ebat, 


J heard, did hear, was hearing, 
Thou heardst, didst hear, wast heading, 
He heard, did hear, was hearing: 


p 8 


1. Audi-ebamus, 

2. Audi-ebatis, 

3. Audi-ebant, 


We heard, did hear, were hearing 
Ye heard, did hear, were hearing, 
They heard, did hear, were hearing. 


Perfect, Def. have heard ; Indef. heard, did hear, §44.111. 


S. 


Audiv-i ? 

Audiv-istiy 

Audiv-it, 


I have heard, heard, did hear, 
Thou hast heard, heardst, didst hear, 
He has heard, heard, did hear ; 


P. 


Audiv-imus, We have heard, heard, did hear, 
Audiv-istis, Ye have heard, heard, did hear, 
Audiv-erunt, or-ere. They have heard, heard, did hear. 




Pluperfect, had heard, § 44. IV. 


s. 


1. Audiv-eram, 

2. Audi v- eras, 

3. Audiv-erat, 


I had heard, 
Thou hadst heard, 
He had heard ; 


p 


► 1. Audiv-eramus, 

2. Audiv-eratis, 

3. Audiv-erant, 


We had heard, 
Ye had heard, 
They had heard. 



§ 68 THE VERB. FOURTH CONJUGATION* 137 

Future, shall, or will hear, § 44. V. 

S. 1. Audi-am, I shall, or will hear. 

2. Audi-es, Thou shalt, or wilt hear, 

3. Audi-et, He shall, or will hear, 
P. 1. Audi-emus, We shall, or will hear, 

2, Audi-etis, Ye shall, or will hear, 

3, Audi-ent, TAe?/ shall, or tw7Z At?<zr. 

Future-perfect, shall, or we7Z Aa^e heard, § 44, VI. 

S. 1. Audiv-ero, I shall, or z^7Z Aaue heard, 

2. Audiv-eris, TAow sAa/£, or wilt have heard, 

3. Audiv-erit, He shall, or wz7Z have heard; 
P. 1. Audiv-erimus, We shall, or wz7Z Aave heard, 

2. Audiv-eritis, Ye 5^aZZ, or will have heard, 

3, Audiv-erint, They shall, or Z027Z Aaue heard. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 
Present Tense, may, or ca?z Aear, § 45. I. 

S. 1. Audi-am, I may, or caw Aear, 

2, Audi-as, TAow mayest, or c#ws£ Aear, 

3. Audi-at , He may, or caw Aear; 
P. 1. Audi-amus, TFe ma?/, or can hear, 

2. Audi-atis, Ye may, or caw Aear, 

3. Audi-ant, They may or can hear. 

Imperfect, might, could, would, or should, §45. II. 

S. 1. Aud-irem, I might, &c. aear, 

2. Aud-ires, TAow mightst, &c. Aear, 

3. Aud-iret, He might, &c. Aear; 
P. 1. Aud-iremus, We might, &c. hear, 

2. Aud-iretis, Ye might, &c. Aear, 

3. Aud-Irent, They might, &c. Aear. 

Perfect, wzay aat?e heard, § 45. III. 
S. 



1. 

2. 
3. 


Audiv-erim, 
Audiv-eris, 
Audlverit, 


I may have heard, 
Thou mayst have heard, 
He may have heard; 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Audiv-erimus, 

Audiv-eritis, 

Audiv-erint, 


We may have heard, 
Ye may have heard, 
They may have heard* 
12* 



138 



THE VERB. FOURTH CONJUGATION. 



§68 



Pluperfect, might, could, would, or should hear, § 45. IV. 



S. 1. Audiv-issem, 

2. Audiv-isses, 

3. Audiv-isset, 
P. 1. Audiv-issemus, 

2. Audiv-issetis, 

3. Audiv-issent, 



I might, &c. have heard, 
Thou mightst, &c. have heard, 
He might, &c. have heard ; 
We might, &c. have heard, 
Ye might, &c. have heard, 
They might, &c have heard. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD, § 42. 



S. 2. Aud-I, or -Ito, 

3. Aud-ito, 
P. 2. Aud-Ite, or -Itote, 

3. Aud-iunto, 



Hear thou, 
Let him hear; 
Hear ye, or you, 
Let them hear. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Aud-ire, To hear, § 47. 11. 

Perf. Audiv-isse, To have heard, 

Fur. Esse auditurus, To be about to hear, 

F. perf. Fuisse auditurus, To have been about to hear. 



PARTICIPLES, 

Pres. Aud-iens, 

Ftjt. Aud-iturus,-a,-um. 

GERUNDS 

Nom. And-iendum, 
Gen. Aud-iendi, 
Bat. Aud-iendo, 
Ace. Aud-iendum, 
Abl. Aud-iendo, 



Pres. 

Imp. 

Perf. 

Plup. 

Fut. 



Hearing, 
About to hearc 



Hearing, 

Of hearing, 

To hearing, 

Hearing, 

With, &c. hearing. 



SUPINES. 
Former, Audlt-um, To hear. 

Latter, Audlt-u, To be heard, or to hear. 



Synopsis of the Moods and Tenses. 



Indicative. 
Audio, 
Audiebam, 
Audivi, 
Audiveram, 
Audiam, 



F. perf. Audivero. 



Subjunctive. 

Audiam, 

Audirem, 

Audrverim, 

Audivissem. 



Imp. 
Audi. 



Infinitive. 
Audlre, 

Audivisse, 

Esse auditurus. 
Fuisse auditurus 



Participles 
Audiens. 



Auditurus. 



§ 69 THE VERB. — FOURTH CONJUGATION. 139 

After the same manner inflect, 

Munio, munire, munivi, munltum, To fortify. 
Venio, Venire, veni, ventum, To come. 

Vincio, Vincire, vinxi, vinctum, To bind, 



§ 69. EXERCISES ON THE ACTIVE VOICE. 

1. Give the designation, &c. as directed, § 57. 1. — Audio, 
audiunt, audlvit, audiet, audirent, audi, audivisse, audive- 
rant, audivSrunt, muniant, munient, muniverunt, muniverint, 
muniunto, muniunt, venerat, venisset, vinxisti, vinxisse, vin- 
ciet, vinclrent, vinciebam, veniens, ventum, venturus, &c. 

2. Translate the following into Latin, &c. as directed, 
§ 57. 2. I have heard, he heard, they were hearing, we will 
hear, you might hear, they could have heard, hear thou, let 
them hear, to have heard, hearing, to be about to hear, he 
shall have come, they will bind, let them bind, to have bound, 
binding, of binding, with binding, he had come, he had bound, 
they will fortify, I was hearing, they would have heard, the 
men (homines) may have heard, about to hear, of hearing, 
they had bound — may have bound — will have bound ; bind 
ye, I have bound, to bind, to have bound, about to bind, bind- 
ing, to have been about to fortify, to have fortified, &c. 

3. Translate according to the rule, § 57. 3. 4. Dicit (he 
says,) me audire, vos audire, eos audivisse, hominem audi- 
turum, esse, hominem auditurum fuisse, homines audituros 
esse, feminam f. (that the woma?i) venturam esse, — venturam 
fuisse, Dixit (he said,) se (that he himself) venturum esse 5 
eum (that he, viz. some other person, not himself,) venturum 
fuisse, nos venturos esse, &c. 

4. As directed, § 57. 3. 5. He says that I hear, that we 
hear, that they Kave heard, that they will hear, that he (him- 
self) will come, that he (some other) will come, that the men 
will come, that the women will come, he said that he (him* 
self) came, that he (another) came, that they had come, that 
they would come, that they would have come, that the women 
would come, — would have come, &e. He will say that I 
hear, that I heard, that I will hear. 



140 



THE VERB. FOURTH CONJUGATION. 



§70 



§ 70. PASSIVE VOICE. 

Pres. bid* Pres. Inf. Perf Part. 

Audior, audlri, auditus. To be heard. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, am heard, § 44. I. 6. 



1. Aud-ior, 

2. Aud-iris, or 

3. Aud-itur, 

, 1. Aud-imur, 

2. Aud-immi, 

3. Aud-iuntur, 



ire, 



lam heard, 
Thou art heard, 
He is heard ; 
We are heard- 
Ye are heard, 
They are heard. 



Imperfect, was heard, §44. II. 4. 



1. Audi-ebar, 

2. Audi-ebaris, or 

3. Audi-ebatur, 

1. Audi-ebamur, 

2. Audi-ebamini, 

3. Audi-ebantur, 



i" was heard, 
ebare, Thou wast heard, 

He was heard ; 
Weivereheard, 
Ye were heard, 
They were heard. 



Perfect, have been heard, was heard, am heard, § 44. HI. 5 



S. 



1. Auditus* sum, or fui, 

2. Anditus es, or fuisti, 

3. Auditus est, or fuit, 

1. Auditi sumus, orfuimus, 

2. Auditi estis, or fuistis, 



I have been heard, 
Thou hast been heard, 
He has been heard ; 
We have been heard, 
Ye have beenheard, 



3. Auditi sunt, fuerunt, or fuere, They have been heard. 



Pluperfect, had been heard* 

I had been heard, 
Thou hadst been heard, 
He had been heard ; 
We had been heard, 
Ye had been heard, 
They had been heard. 



S. 1. Auditus* eram, or fueram, 

2. Auditus eras, or fueras, 

3. Auditus erat, or fuerat, 
P. 1. Auditi eramus, or fueramus, 

2. Auditi eratis, or fueratis, 

3. Auditi erant, or fuerant, 



See § 44. III. 6. Note. 



§70 



THE VERB. FOURTH CONJUGATION, 



141 



Future, shall ', or will be heard. 



1. Audi-ar, 

2. Audi-eris.w-ere, 

3. Audi-etur, 

1. Audi-emur, 

2. Audi-emini, 

3. Audi-entur. 



S. 



Future-perfect, 

1. Auditus fuero, 

2. Auditus fueris, 

3. Auditus fuerit, 
P. 1. Auditi fuerimus, 

2. Auditi fueritis, 

3. Auditi, fuerint, 



I shall, or w?z7Z be heard, 
Thou shah, or wilt be heard s 
He shall, or will be heard, 
We shall, or will be heard, 
Ye shall, or will be heard. 
They shall, or will be heard, 

shall, or will have been heard* 

I shall, or will have been heard, 
Thou shalt, or wilt have been heard, 
He shall, or will have been heard, 
We shall, or will have been heard, 
Ye shall, or will have been heard, 
They shall, or will have been heard, 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD, 
Present Tense, may, or can be heard. 



S. 1. Audi-ar, 

2. Audi-aris or -are, 

3. Audi-atur, 
P. 1. Audi-amur, 

2. Audi-ammi, 

3. Audi-ant ur, 



I may, or can be heard, 
Thou may est, or canst be heard, 
He may, or can be heard. 
We may, or can be heardj 
Ye may, or can be heard, 
They may, or can be heard. 



Imperfect, might, could, would, or should be heard. 



1. Aud-irer, 

2. Aud-ireris, or -irere, 

3. Aud-Iretur, 

1. Aud-iremur, 

2. Aud-Iremmi, 

3. Aud-irentur, 



I might, &c. be heard, 
Thou mightst, &c. be heard, 
He might, &c. be heard, 
We might, &c. be heard, 
Ye might, &c. be heard, 
They might, &c. be heard, 



Perfect, may have been heard. 

S..1. Auditus sim, or fuerim, I may have been heard, 

2. Auditus sis, or fueris, Thou mayest have been heard, 

3. Auditus sit, or fuerit, He may have been heard, 
P. 1. Auditi simus, orfuerimus,TFe may have been heard, 

2. Auditi sitis, or fueritis, Ye may have been heard, 
3* Auditi sint, or fuerint, They may have been heard. 



142 



THE VERB FOURTH CONJUGATION. 



§71 



Pluperfect, ?night i could, tvould, ox should have been heard. 



Auditus essem, or fuissem, 
Auditus esses, or fuisses, 
Auditus esset, or fuisset, 
Auditi essemus, wfuissemus, 
Auditi essetis, or fuissetis, 
Auditi essent, or fuissent, 



I might, &c. have been heard, 
Thou might st have been heard, 
He might have been heard, ; 
We might have been heard, 
Ye might have been heard, 
They might have been heard. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



2. Aud-ire, or -ltor, 

3. Aud-itor, 

2. Aud-immi, 

3. Aud-iuntor, 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Be thou heard, 
Let him be heard; 
Be ye heard, 
Let them be heard, 



Pres. Aud-Iri, 

Perf. Esse, or fuisse auditus, 

FuTe Auditum iri, 



To be heard, §41. 11. 
To have been heard. 
To be about to be heard. 



PARTICIPLES. 

Perf. Auditus -a -urn, Heard, being heard, having been heard* 
Fut. Audiendus -a-um, To be heard, proper, or necessary to 

be heard. 



Synopsis of the Moods and Tenses, 
Indicative. Subjunctive. Imper. Infinitive. 



Pres. Audior, 
Imp. Audiebar, 
Perf. Auditus sum, 
Plup. Auditus eram, 
Fut. Audlar, 
F. P. Auditus fuero. 



Audiar, 
Audirer, 
Auditus sim, 
Auditus essem. 



Audire." 



Audiri, 

Esse or fuisse 

auditus, 
Auditum iri. 



Part. 



Auditus, 

Audien- 
dus- 



After the same manner inflect, 



Munior, 

Polior 5 

Vincior, 



muniri, munltus, To be fortified. 

poliri, polltus, To be polished. 

vinciri, vinctus, To be bound. 



§ 11. EXERCISES ON THE PASSIVE VOICE. 

1. Give the designation, Sec. as directed, § 59. 1. — Audior, 
audiar, audiebatur, auditus sum, audietur, audlmmi, audie- 
mmi, audiammi, audiremmi, auditus fueris, audire. audiri, 



§ 71 THE VERB* FOURTH CONJUGATION. 143 

audiuntur, audiuntor, audientur, audiantur, auditi sunt, audi- 
tus erat, muniebantur, munitus fuerit, munitus esse, munitus, 
munitur, vincitur, vincietur$vinciatur, vincitor, venitur, 

2. Translate the folloiving into Latin, as directed, § 59. 2* 
He is heard, we were heard, he has been heard, they will be 
heard, ye may be heard, he should be heard, hear ye, to be 
heard, to be about to be heard, I was bound, he will be bound, 
they would be bound, we may have been bound, to be fortifi- 
ed, being fortified, to be about to be fortified, to have been 
fortified, &c. 

Promiscuous Exercises on the Fourth Conjugation. 

3. Give the designation, &c. as directed, § 59. 1.- — Audi- 
vit, audivere, audiebatur, audiretur, audiuntur, audiuntor, 
munient, muniverint, muni, munlre, munitor, muniens; ve- 
niat, ventum, veniendi, veni, venere, ventum erat, vinciunt, 
vinciuntor, vinclrent, vinxisset, vinctus esset, vinctus fuerit, 
venit, venit, &c. 

4. Translate the following words into Latin, &c. as directed^ 
§ 57. 2 ; or 59. 2. — I was heard, he heard, he has heard, we 
were heard, ye had been heard, they will be heard, they may 
be heard, they might have been heard, let them come, they 
shoull come, they will come, they will have come, I might 
have been bound, thou hast been bound, thou wilt be bound, 
thou art bound, thou wast bound, to be about to be bound, be- 
ing bound, necessary to be bound, binding, &c. 

5. As directed, §57. 3. 4. — (Dicit he says) se audire, se 
audivisse, eum auditurum esse, eos auditiiros, fuisse, eum au- 
dltum esse, nos auditum iri. (Dixit he said) nos audiri, 
vos auditos esse, illos audituros esse, femmas audittiras fu- 
isse, feminas auditum iri, vos vincire, vos vinciri, &c. 

6. Translate as directed, § 57. 5.— He says (dicit) that 
he was heard, that he will hear, that he bound, that he was 
bound, that he will come, that we will not (non) come ; he 
said (dixit) that he (himself) heard, that he (some other) heard, 
that we would hear, that they would have been heard, that 
we are bound, that we have been bound, that we will be 
bound, that he has polished, — has been polished, might have 
polished, — might have been polished , to have been poltshed — 
bound— fortified, proper to be fortified. He will say (dicet) 
that we will hear — -will be heard — would have been bound — 
polished, &c. 



144 DEPONENT VERBS. § 72 

§ 72. DEPONENT AND COMMON VERBS. 

1 . Deponent verbs* are those which under a 
passive form have an active or neuter signification ; 
as, loquor " I speak;" morior, "I die." 

2. Common verbs are those which under a pas- 
sive form have an active or neuter signification ; 
as, criminor, " I accuse," or " I am accused." 

Obs. 1. All deponent verbs seem to have been originally 
passives. Hence there are many verbs which, though found 
in the active voice, are used as deponents in the passive, 

Obs. 2. In common verbs the passive sense is generally 
confined to the perfect participle; thus, we can say, adeptus 
victoriam, "having obtained the victory;" or, victoria adep* 
td, " the victory being obtained." Hence adipiscor is called 
a common verb, though in all its parts except the perfect par- 
ticiple, it is usually deponent, or has an active signification. 

Obs. 3. Deponent verbs are conjugated and inflected like 
the passive voice of the conjugations to which they belong; 
except that they have also the participles gerunds, supines 
and future of the infinitive like the active voice, ^ 49. 12. 13. 



$ 73. EXAMPLE OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION, 
Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Part. 

Mir or. mirari, miratus, To admire. 

[Inflected like Amor, § 58.] 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Pr. Mir-or, -aris, or -are, &c. I admire, am admiring, &c. 
Imp. Mir-abar,-abaris,or-abare, I admired, ivas admiring? 
Per. Miratus sum, or fui, &c. I have admired, I admired. 
Plu. Miratus -eram, or -fu cram, I had admired. 
Fut. Mir-abor.-aberis, or -abere J shall, or will admire. 
F.P. ^Jiratus fuero, &c. I shall, or will have admired. 

* So called from depono. u I lay aside," because, as is supposed, 
having formerly been common verbs, they have laid aside the pas- 
sive sense 



§ ?4 DEPONENT VERBS. 145 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Mir-er -eris, or -ere, &e. I may, or can admire* 
Imp. Mir-arer, -areris, or -arere, Imight, &c. admire. 
Perf. Miratus sim, or fuerim,&c. I may have admired. 
Plup. Miratus essem, or fuissem, I mighty &c. have admired. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Mir-are, or -ator, &c. Admire thou, &c. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Mirari, To admire, § 47. 11. 

Perf. Miratus esse, or fuisse, To have admired. 
Fut. Miraturus esse, To be about to admire. 

F. perf. Miraturus fuisse, To have been about to admire. 

PARTICIPLES, 

Pres. Mirans, Admiring. 

Perf. Miratus, Having admired. 

F. Act. Miraturus, -a, -urn, About to admire. 

F. Pass. Mirandus, a, -um, To be admired, deserving, 

or proper to be admired. 

GERUNDS. 

Nom. Mirandum, Admiring. 

Gen. Mirandi, &c. Of admiring. 

SUPINES. 
Former. Miratum, To admire. 

iATTER. Miratu, To be admired. 

Synopsis of the moods and tenses, as in Amor, § 58. 



$ 74. DEPONENT VERBS OF THE SECOND CON- 
JUGATION. 

Deponents of the second conjugation are few in number. 
Of these, medeor, " to heal," has no participle of its own. 
In their stead, medicdtus is used. Mereor has merui, as well 
as merttus sum in the perfect indicative. Reor has no im- 
perfect subjunctive. 

13 



146 DEPONENT VERBS. § 74 

Pres. hid. Pres. Inf. Perf. Part. 
Polliceor, polliceri, pollicitus, To promise. 
[Inflected like Moneor, § 62.] 
INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Pollic-eor, -eris, or -ere, &c. I promise, &c. 
Imp. Pollic-ebar -ebaris,or -ebare, &c. I promised, &c. 
Perf. Pollicitus sum, or fui, &c. I have promised, &c. 

Plup. Pollicitus eram, or fueram, &c. I had promised, &c. 
Ftjt. Pollic-ebor -eberis or -ebere, &c. I shall or tvill pro?nise, 
F. P. Pollicitus fuero, &c. I shall, or tvill have 

promised. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Pollice-ar,-aris,or-are, &c. I may , or can promise,&cc. 
Imp. Pollic-erer,-ereris.0r-erere,J??izgA£, &c. promise. 
Per. Pollicitus sim, or fuerim, &o,.I may have promised, &e. 
Plup. Pollicitus essem, or fuissem, I might, he. have promised. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Pres. Pollic-ere, or -etor, &c. Promise thou, &c. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Polliceri, To promise. § 47.11. 

Perf. Pollicitus esse or fuisse, To have promised. 

Ftjt. Polliciturus esse, To be about to promise. 

F. Perf. Polliciturus fuisse, To have been about to promise 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Pollicens, Promising. 

Perf. Pollicitus, Having promised. 

Fut. Act. Polliciturus, -a, -um, About to promise. 

Fut. Pas. Pollicendus, -a, -um, To be promised. 

GERUNDS. SUPINES. 

Norn. Pollicendum, Promising. 1. Pollicitum, To promise. 
Gen. Pollicendi, Of promising- 2. Pollicitu, To be promised. 

Synopsis of the moods and tenses, as in § 62. 



§ 75 DEPONENT VERBS. 147 

4 75. DEPONENT VERBS OF THE THIRD CON- 
JUGATION. 

Pres. Irtd. Pres. Inf. Perf. Part. 
Utor uti, usus. To use. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Ut-or -eris, or -ere, &c. I use, do use, am using, &c. 

Imp. Ut-ebar,-ebaris,or-ebare, Iused, diduse, was using,&cc. 

Perf. Usus sum, or fui, &c. I have used, used, did use, &c. 

Plup. Usus eram, orfueram, Sec. I had used, &c. 

Fut. Ut-ar, -eris, or -ere, &c. I shall, or will use, &c. 

F. P. Usus, ero, or fuero, &c. I shall, or will have used, &c. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Pre. Ut-ar, -aris, or -are, &c. I may, or can use, &c. 
Imp. Ut-erer, -ereris or erere, &c. J might, could, &c. wse, &c. 
Per. Usus sim, or fuerim, &c. I may have used, &c. 
Plu.Usus essem, or fuissem, &c. / might, &c. haveused, &c. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Pres. Ut-ere, or -itor, &c. Use thou, &c. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Uti, To use. § 47. 11. 

Perf. Usus esse, or fuisse, To have used. 

Fut. Usiirus esse, To be about to use. 

F. P Usiirus fuisse, To have been about to use* 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Utens, Using. 

Perf. Usus, Having used* 

F. Act. Usiirus, -a, -um, About to use. 

F. PAss.Utendus, -a, -um, To be used, &c. 

GERUNDS. SUPINES. 

Nom. Uteiidum, Using, 1. Usum, To use. 

Gen. Utendi, Of using, &c. 2. Usu, To be used, to use. 

Synopsis of the moods and tenses, as in § 66. 



148 DEPONENT VERBS. § 76 

§ 76. DEPONENT VERBS OF THE FOURTH CON- 
JUGATION. 

Pres. bid. Pres. Inf. Perf. Part. 

Metior. metiri, mensus, To measure. 

Piu Met-ior, -iris, or -ire, &c. I measure, am measuring. 
Imp. Meti-ebar,-ebaris, or -ebare, I measured, was measuring. 
Per. Mensus sum, or fui, &c. I haw measured, measured. 
Plu. Mensus eram, or fueram,&e. / had measured. 
Fut. Meti-ar, -eris, or -ere, &c. I shall, or will measure, 
F. P. Mensus ero, or fuero, &c. I shall, or will have measured. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Meti-ar, -aris, or -are, &c. I may, or can measure. 
Imp. Meti-rer, -reris, or -rere, Imight, &c. measure. 
Perf. Mensus sim, or fuerim, I may have measured. 
Plup. Mensus essem, or fuissem, I might, &c. have measured, 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Pres. Met- ire or -Itor, &e. Measure thou, &c. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Metiri, To measure, § 47. 11. 

Perf. Mensus esse, or fuisse, To have measured. 

Fut. Mensurus esse, To be about to measure. 

F, Per. Mensurus fuisse, To have been about to measure. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Metiens, Measuring, 

Perf. Mensus, Having measured, 

Fut. Act. Mensurus, -a, -um, About to measure, 

Fut. Pass. Metiendus, -a, -um, To be measured. 

GERUNDS. SUPINES 

N. Metiendum, Measuring. l.Mensum, To measure, 

G. Metiendi, Of measuring, &c. 2. Mensu, To be measured. 

Synopsis of the Moods and Tenses, as in § 70. 



I 77 DEPONENT VERBS. 149 

$ 77. EXERCISES ON DEPONENT VERBS. 

1. Miror, I admire. 3. Utor, I use. 

2. Polliceor, I promise. 4. Metior, I measure. 

1. Give the designation* of the verb, — conjugate it } — give the tense, 
mood, person, number, and translation of the following ivords, always 
observing the same order, thus; — Miror, verb, active, deponent, first, 
Miror, mirari, mirdtus. It is found in the present indicative, first 
person, singular; " / admire, do admire, am admiring." 

Mirabatur, mirabitur, mirantur, mirabuntur, mirarentur, 
pollicitus sum, pollicitus erat, pollicitus fuerit, pollicerentur, 
utitur, usus est, uti, ustirus, utens, utendum, uteretur, utar, 
metiris, metiuntur, metiuntor, metimmi, mensus erat, mensus 
sit, mensi fuerunt, utere, utere, pollicere, pollicitus, pollicens. 

2. Translate the following English words into Latin, naming the 
part of the verb used; thus, " I have admired;" miratus sum: In the 
perfect indicative, first person, singular. 

They will use, we shall measure, let them measure, about 
to use, we have used, they may have used, he will have us- 
ed, they will promise, they would have promised, we might 
admire, I would have used, use thou, let them use, promise 
ye, let us use, (§ 45.1. 1.) let us admire, they have promis- 
ed, promising, having promised, to measure, let us measure. 

3. Translate the following into English, according to the 
Rules and Examples , § 57. 3. 4. — Dicit (he says) me mi- 
rare, vos polliceri, nos miratos esse, eos pollicituros esse, 
homines mensuros esse, feminas pollicituras esse, te uti, se 
mirari, eum mirari, me mensurum esse, vos ustiros, (§ 47. 
Note 1.) dicitur (he is said) pollicitus esse, (§ 47. 6.) 
Dicit (he said) se mirari, nos pollicitos esse, eos pollicitu- 
ras, vos mensos esse, feminas mensuras,eum pollicitum. 

4. Translate the following into Latin, according to di- 
rection, § 57.5. — He says (dicit) \h&t I am usipg, that thou 
admirest, that he has measured, that we will promise, that 
the men will measure, that the women will use, that you 
will measure, that I would ha^e used, that they would have 
admired, that they admired. He said (dixit) that I was 
using,- — had been using, that you were measuring, that he 
measured, that they had promised, that they would use. 

* In parsing deponent verbs, it is necessary in giving the designa- 
tion to state whether it is active or neuter i. e. transitive or intransi- 
tive: But in stating the part of the verb used, it is unnecessary to 
mention the voice, because deponent verbs have only the passive form 

13* 



150 NEUTER PASSIVE VERBS. § 78 

* 78 NEUTER PASSIVE VERBS. 

1. Neuter Passive Verbs, are those which with a neu- 
ter or intransitive meaning throughout, have a passive form in 
the perfect, and tenses derived from it, but an active form in 
the other tenses. They are the following. 

Second Conjugation. 

Audeo, audere, ausus, To dare. 

Gaudeo, gaudere, gavisus, To rejoice. 

Soleo, solere, solitus, To be wont, 

Third Conjugation. 
Fido, fidere, fisus, To trust. 

So also the compounds of fido confido, "I trust," and 
difftdo, " I distrust," which have also conf idi, and diffzdi, in 
the perfect. Neuter-passives are inflected thus ? 

SECOND CONJUGATION. 
Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Part. 
Audeo, audere, ausus, To dare. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Aud-eo, -es, -et, &c. I dare, do dare, am daring. 

Imp. Aud-ebam, -ebas, ebat, &c. I dared, was daring, &c. 
Perf. Ausus sum, or fui, &c, I have dared, dared^ did dare 
Plup. Ausus eram, or fueram, / had dared. 
Fut. Aud-ebo, -ebis, -ebit, &c. I shall, or will dare. 
F.P. Ausus fuero> &c. I shall have dared. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Aud-eam, -eas, -eat, &c. I may, or can dare. 
Imp. Aud-erem,-eres, -eret, &c. I might, could Sec. dare, 
Perf. Ausus sim, or fuerim, &c. I may have dared. 
Plup. Ausus essem, or fms$em,&c. I ?night, &c. have dared. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Aud-e, or -eto, &c. Dare thou,Scc. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Audere, To dare, §47. 11. 

Perf. Ausus esse, or fuisse, To have dared. 

Fut. Ausurus esse, To be about to dare. 

F. Perf. Ausurus fuisse^ To have been about to dare* 



i 



§ 79 THE VERB GENERAL REMARKS. 151 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Audens, Daring, 

Perf. Ausus, -a, -um, Having dared. 

Fut. Act. Ausurus, -a, -um, About to dare. 

Fut. Pass. Audendus, a, -um, To be dared, &c. (seldom used.) 

GERUNDS. SUPINES. 

Norn. Audendum, Daring. 1. Ausum, To dare. 

Gen. Audendi,&c. Of daring. 2. Ausu, To be dared, to dare. 

2. The following verbs are called Neutral Passives, namely 
fio, " I am made," or " I become;" vapulo, " I am beaten;" 
veneo, " I am sold." They have an active form, but a passive 
signification, and serve as passives to facio, verbero and vendo. 
Fio has the passive form in the preterite tenses, § 83. 8. 



$ 79. GENERAL REMARKS ON THE CONJUGA- 
TIONS. 

1. The perfect and pluperfect active, both in the indica- 
tive and subjunctive, are often shortened by a syncope as 
follows : 

1st. In the first conjugation avi and ave often drop vi and ve before 
s or r, and circumflect the a, thus j for a?ndvisti, amavissern, amavSram, 
amavZro, amavSrim, &c. we often have am&sti, amdssem, amdram, 
amaro, a7ndrim, &c. Also in the second and third conjugation -evi, 
drops vi in the same situation; as, complesti, for complevisti ; dele- 
ram, for delevZram; decressem, for deer evissem ; &c. But ovi is syn- 
copated only in the preterite verb novi, and the compounds of moveoj 
as, norant, for novtrant-, nosse, for novisse ; commdssem, for commo- 
vissem, &c. 

2d. In the fourth conjugation ivi, frequently loses vi before s; as, 
audisti, for audivisti ; audissem, for audivissem. Sometimes the v 
only is dropped between two vowels : as, audii for audivi ; audiSram 
for audiveram, &c. And so also with other preterites of the same 
form, with the tenses derived from them j as, petii for petivi ; i%ram 
forivZram, &c. 

2. The perfect indicative active, third person, plural, has 
two forms, -erunt and -ere. Both forms have the same mean- 



152 GENERAL REMARKS, ETC. § 79 

ing, the first is more common with the earlier, and the se- 
cond with the later writers. 

3. In the passive voice there are two forms of the second 
person, singular, namely, -ris and -re. The termination -re 
is rarely used in the present indicative ; in the other tenses 
-re is more common than -ris, especially in Cicero. 

4. The imperatives of dico, duco, facio and jfero, are usu- 
ally written die, duc,fac,fer; also in their compounds ex- 
cept in those of facio which change a into i; as confice* per- 
ftce, &c. 

5. In the old forms of the language, the present infinitive 
passive was lengthened, especially among the poets, by add- 
ing -er; as, amarier for amdri; — legier for legi, &c. 

6. The terminations -rimus and -ritis in the Future-per- 
fect indicative, and Perfect subjunctive, have the i sometimes 
long and sometimes short. It is marked short in the preced- 
ing paradigms. The pupil may be accustomed to give it 
both ways. 

7. In the passive voice, the perfect and pluperfect have 
two forms. Of these, the perfect participle with fui and 
fueram expresses the completion of past action more empha- 
tically than when joined with mmand eram. Thus, pransus 
sum means, " I have dined," "I have just dined;" pransus 
fui, means, "I have dined sometime ago." § 49. 14. 

8. The verb sum, through all its tenses with the future 
participle in -rus. is used to express the intention, at the time 
referred to, of doing a thing presently, or that the action is, 
or was, or will be on the point of being done. When this 
idea is to be conveyed, this form of expression is used in pre- 
ference to the Future, which simply denotes that an act will 
be effected in future time. This, which proceeds as follows, 
is sometimes called the, 

FIRST PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Pres. Amaturus (-a -um) sum, I am about to love, 
Imp. Amaturus eram, I was about lo lore, 

Perf. Amaturus fui, I have been about to love, 

Plup. Amaturus fuerar I had been about to love, 

Fut. Amaturus ero, I shall be about to love. 

Amaturu- tu : i ,i not used. 



§ 79 GENERAL REMARKS, ETC. 153 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



Pee. Amaturus sim, I may be about to love, 
Imp. Amaturus essem, I might, &c. be about to love. 
Per. Amaturus fuerim, I may have been about to love, 
Plup. Amaturus fuissem, i" might, &c. have been about to love. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Amaturus esse, To be about to love. 

Perf. Amaturus fuisse, To have been about to love, 

9. In like manner, the future participle in -dus, express- 
ing propriety or necessity of doing at the time referred to, is 
joined with all the tenses of the verb sum, and thus forms 
what is called the, 

SECOND PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION. 

TIius,Pr. Amandus sum. I deserve, or ought to be loved, 

Imp. Amandus eram,/ deserved, or ought to be loved, &c. 

and so forth through all the other tenses, as with the partici- 
ple in -rus, No. 8. In analyzing such expressions, however, 
it is better to parse each word of the compound separately, 
and combine them by the rules of syntax. A stronger neces- 
sity is expressed by the Gerund, with the verb est; thus, 
scribendum est mihi epistolam, is " I must write a letter, 
i. e. I am compelled to do it , whereas, scribenda est mihi 
epistola, means simply, "I should write a letter," see syn- 
tax, § 147. 

10. The future infinitive passive is a compound of iri, 
the present infinitive passive of eo, "to go," used imperson- 
ally, and the supine in -urn; so that amatum iri, literally is 
" to be going to love." 

11. The verbal adjective in -bundus, is rendered like the 
present participle, but with increased strength ; thus, errans 
wandering; errabundus, " wandering too and fro ;" moriens, 
"dying;" moribundus, "in the agonies of death," &c. 

12. The meaning and use of the Gerundive participle al- 
ready mentioned, § 49. 7, will be more fully explained in 
Syntax, § 147. Rule LXII, 



154 COMPOUND VERBS. § 80 

§ 80. COMPOUND VERBS. 

Verbs are compounded chiefly with prepositions, which 
modify the simple verb according to their respective mean- 
ings ; thus, eo u I go" in composition with different preposi- 
tions is modified by them ; as, adeo " I go to ;" abeo, "I go 
from;" exeo, " I go out;" ineo, "I go in," &c. In the for- 
mation of compounds due regard must be paid to the follow- 
ing 

GENERAL RULES. 

1. Compound verbs form the perfect and supine in the 
same manner as simple verbs; as, A mo, amdre, amdvi, amd- 
turn; red-amo, red-amdre, red-amdm, red-amdtum. 

2. Simple verbs which double the first syllable in the per- 
fect, drop the reduplication in the compounds ; as pello, pe- 
puli) re-pello, re-puli. Except prcecurro, re-pungo, and 
the compounds of do, sto, disco, and posco, 

3. Compound verbs which change a of the present into a, 
have e in the Supine ; as, facio, per-ficio. Sup. perfectum. 
Except verbs ending in -do, -go; with the compounds of 
habeo, placeo, salio, sapio, and statuo. 

4. Verbs which are defective in the Perfect likewise want 
the Supine. 

5. The following changes, which happen to the preposition, 
and to the simple verb, in a state of composition, merit atten- 
tion. 

A is used in composition before m and r. Ab before vowels, and 
d, f, h, j, I, n, r, s. Before fero and fugio x it becomes aw, as, 
aufero, aufugio. Abs is used before c and t : as, abscedo, abstuli. 

Ad changes d into the first letter of the simple beginning with c, 
/, g, I, n, p, r, s, t: as, accurro, afficio, aggero. In some wri- 
ters it remains unaltered, zsadficio. 

Am, (i. e. ambi. from oc/xcp/ circum,) before c, q. f, h, is changed 
into an: as, anquiro, anhelo. Sometimes it assumes its own b: as, 
ambio. 

Circum remains unaltered. The m is sometimes changed : as, 
circundo for circumdo ; or omitted : as, circueo for circumeo. 

Con, before a vowel or h, drops the n : as, coaleo, cohibeo ; before 
I, its n becomes I; and before b, p, m, it becomes m; and before r 
it changes n into r ; as, colligo, comburo, comparo, commeo, corripio. 
In comburo it assumes b after it. 

Di is used before d, g, I, m, n, v: as, diduco, digladior. Dis 
and di before r : as, disrumpo, dirumpo ; likewise before j: as, dis- 
judico, dijzidico. Dis is used before c, p, q, s, t : as, discumbo. dis- 



§ 81 LIST OP VERBS. 155 

pello. Before sp and st, s is removed, and before/ it is changed 
into/: as, dispicio, disto, diffiteor. Before a vowel, it assumes r; 
as, dirimo, from emo. 

E is found before b, d, g-, I, m, n, r, and before j and v: as, 
ehibo, educo, ejicio, eveho. Ex is used before vowels, and h, c, p t 
q, t } s: as, exaro, exhibeo, excutio ; before /, x becomes/; as, 
officio. 

In sometimes changes n into the first letter of the simple verb : as, 
illudo; but before b, m, p, itchanges n into m : as, imbibo, immineo, 



Ob generally remains unaltered. The b is sometimes omitted, as 
in omitto ; or changed into the first letter of the simple verb : as, 
offer o. 

Re assumes d before d, a vowel, or h: as, reddo, redamo, redeo, 
redhibeo. Pro likewise sometimes takes a d. as in prodeo. 

Sub changes b into the consonant of the simple, before c, /, g, m } 
p t r: as, succedo, suffero, suggero. Submitto and summitto ; submo* 
• veo, and summoveo, are both used. 

Trans is generally contracted into tra, before d, j, n : as, trado, 
trajicio, trano ; and sometimes before I and m : as, traluceo, trameo. 
Post becomes pos in postuli. Few if any changes take place in the 
other prepositions. Other prefixes consist of verbs, as in calefacio, 
of caleo ; of adverbs, as in benefacio, of bene ; of participles and 
adjectives, as in mansuefacio , magnifico, of mansueius and magnus ; 
of substantives, as in significo, of signum; of a preposition and 
noun, as in animadverto, of ad and animus. 



§ 81. LIST OF VERBS IRREGULAR IN THE PRE- 
TERITE AND SUPINE. 

[Owing to the irregularity of many verbs in the Preterite and Supine in the 
third conjugation, and of not a few in the other conjugations also, no rules 
that could be given would be of much practical utility. The only effectual 
way to attain accuracy and readiness in the conjugation of verbs, is to commit 
the primary parts or the conjugation accurately from the Dictionary. To be 
able to do this as soon as possible, is of great importance to every scholar; 
and it is not a task of so great difficulty as might be supposed. The following list 
contains all the simple verbs that vary in the preterite and supine, from the 
general rule. By committing a portion of these to memory every day, to be 
recited with the ordinary lesson, and repeating this exercise in revisals till the 
whole is inwrought into the memory, much future labor will be saved; and 
this can be done in a few weeks, without at all interfering with the regular re- 
citations. When the composition of a verb changes its form, it is noticed at 
the foot of the page, to which reference is made by numbers.] 



156 



PRETERITES AND SUPINES. 



§81 



FIRST CONJUGATION. 

Rule. — Verbs of the First Conjugation have avi in the 
Perfect, and atum in the Supine : as, 

Amo, amare, amavi, amatunij To love. 

Muto, mutare, mutavi, mutatum, To change. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

The Tenses of some Verbs included in the lists of Exceptions are 
also found, especially in the earliest authors, conjugated according to 
the General Rules. The form here given is that which is in common 
use. 



Pres. 


Inf: 


Perf. 


Sup. 




Do,* 


dare, 


dedi, 


datum, 


To give. 


Sto,2 


stare, 


steti, 


statum, 
C lotum, 


To stand. 


Lavo, 


C lavare, 
) lavere. 


lavi, 


< lautum, 
( lava turn, 


To wash. 


Poto, 


potare, 


potavi, 


i potum, or 
\ potatum, 


To drink. 


Jtivo, 3 


juvare, 


juvi, 


jutum, 


To assist. 


Cubo, 4 


cuba re, 


cubui, 


cubltum, 


To lie. 


Domo, 


domare, 


domui, 


domltum, 


To subdue. 


Sono, 5 


sonare, 


sonui, 


sonltum, 


To sound. 



1 Ciicumdo, to surround; pessundo, to ruin; satisdo, to give sure- 
ty; and venundo, to sell, are conjugated like do. The other Com- 
pounds oelong to the Third Conjugation, and have didim the Perfect, 
and ditum in the Supine : as, abdo, abdidi } abditum, abdZre, to hide; 
reddo, reddidi, redditum, to give back. 

2 The Compounds of sto have stiti in the Perfect, and statum in 
the Supine: as, consto, constiti, constatum, to stand together. Some 
of the Compounds have occasionally stltum in the Supine: as, prcesto, 
prcestiti, prcestitum, or prcestatum, to stand before, to excel. Adsto, 
to stand by, insto, to urge on, and resto, to remain over and above, 
have no Supine. Antesto, to stand before; circumsto, to stand round; 
instersto, to stand between; and supersto, to stand over, have sttti, in 
the Perfect, and the first two, and probably the others also, want the 
Supine. Disto to be distant, and substo to stand under, have neither 
Perfect nor Supine. 

3 The Supine jutum is doubtful, as the Future Participle is juva- 
turns. JLdjuvo has ad jutum only, and adjuturus. 

4 In the same manner those Compounds are conjugated which do 
not assume an m: as, accubo, to lie next to; excubo, to watch; in- 
cubo, to lie upon; recubo, to lie down again; secubo, to lie apart. 
The Compounds which assume an m belong to the Third Conjuga- 
tion, and have ui and iturn in the Perfect and Supine: as, incumbo. 
incubui, incubituin, to lie upon. 

6 The Future Participle is sondturus. 



§81 



PRETERITES AND SUPINES. 



157 



Pres. 

Teno, 6 

veto,* 

Crepo, 8 
Mlco,9 
Frlco, 10 
Seco, 

Neco, 1 * 

Labo, 
Nexo, 
PlIco/2 



Inf. 
tonare, 
vetare, 
crepare, 
micare, 
fricare, 
secare, 

necare, 

labare, 
nexare. 
plicare, 



Per/. 

tonui, 

vetui, 

crepui, 

micui, 

fricui, 

secui, 

necavi, 

necui, 



Sup. 
ton! turn, 
vetltum, 
crepltum, 



frictum, 
sectum, 
necatum, 



To thunder. 

To forbid. 

To make a noise* 

To glitter. 

To rub. 

To cut. 

To kill. 

To fall } or faint. 
To blind. 
To fold. 



SECOND CONJUGATION. 

Rule. — Verbs of the Second Conj ligation liave ui in the 
Perfect, and itum in the Supine : as, 

Moneo, monere, monui, monitum, To advise* 

Habeo, 1 habere, habui, habitum, To have. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

Neuter Verbs which have ui in the Perfect, want the Supine : as, 
splendeo, splendui, to shine ; madeo, madui, to be wet. 

The following Neuter Verbs have ui and itum, according to the 
general rule : 

Caleo, to be hot. Coaleo, to grow together. 

Careo, to want. Doleo, to grieve. 

6 Intono has intondtus in the Perfect Participle. 

7 VHo has sometimes vetdvi in the Perfect. 

8 Discrepo, to differ, and incrSpo, to chide, have sometimes dvi 
and dtum, as well as ui and itum. Incrtpo has seldom the latter form. 

9 Emico, to shine forth, has emicui, emicdtum • and dimico, to 
fight, has dimicdvi (rarely dimicui,) dimicdtum. 

10 Some of the Compounds of frico have the Participles formed 
from the regular Supine in dtum : as, confricdtus, infricatus. 

11 En&co, to kill, and interneco, to destroy, have also ui and ectum : 
the Partiple of eneco is usually enectus. 

12 Duplico, to double, muliiplico, to multiply: replico. to unfold, 
and supplico, to entreat humbly, have dvi and dtum. The other 
Compounds of plico have either ui and itum, or dvi and dtum: as, 
applico, to apply, applicui, applicitum, or applicdvi, applicdtum. 
Explico, in the sense of explain, has dvi and dtum ; in the sense of 
unfold, it has ui and Hum. 

1 The Compounds of habeo change a into i: as, adhibeo, adhibui, 
adhibitum, to admit ; vrohibeo, prohibui, prohibitum, to forbid. 

14 



158 



PRETERITES AND SUPINES. 



§81 



Jaceo, to lie. 
Lateo, 2 to lie hid. 
Llceo, to be valued. 
Mereo, to deserve. 

Pres. Inf. 
Doceo, docere, 
Teneo, 2 tenare, 

Misceo, miscere, 

Censeo, 4 censere, 
Torreo, torrere, 
Sorbeo, 5 sorbere, 
Tlmeo, timere, 
Slleo, silere, 
Arceo. 6 arcere, 
Taceo, 7 tacere, 
Prandeo, 8 prandere, 
Video, videre, 
Sedeo, 9 sedere, 
Strideo, stridere, 
Frendeo, frendere, 
Mordeo, 18 mordere, 
Pendeo, pendere, 
Spondeo, spondere, 
Tondeo, tondere, 


Perf. 
docui, 
tenui, 

miscui, 

censui, 

torrui, 

sorbui ; 

timui, 

silui, 

arcui, 

tacui, 

prandi, 

vidi, 

sedi, 

stridi, 

frendi, 

momor< 

pepend 

spopon 

totondi 


No ceo, to hurt. 
Pareo, to appear, 
Placeo, to please. 
Valeo, to be in health. 

Sup. 

doctum, To teach. 

tentum, To hold. 
$ mistum, or m 
Upturn, Tomx - 

cen s um , To think } to judge . 

tostum, To roast, 

sorptum, To sup. 




J. U J till . 

To he silent. 
To drive away. 
To be silent. 
To dine* 
To see. 
To sit. 

To make a noise. 
To gnash the teeth. 
To bite. 
To hang. 
To promise. 
To clip. 




taciturn, 
pransurn, 
visum, 
sessum, 


fressum, 
li, morsum, 
i, pensum, 
li, sponsum, 
, tonsum, 






2 The Compounds of lateo want the Supine : as, deliteo, delitui, 
to lurk ; perlateo, perlatui, to lie hid. 

3 The Compounds of Uneo change e into i: as contineo, continui, 
contentum, to hold together. Attlneo, to hold ; and pertineo, to be- 
long to, have no Supine ; and abstineo, to abstain from, seldom. 

4 Censeo has also census sum in the Perfect, and censitum in the 
Supine, Accenseo, to reckon with, and percenseo, to recount, want 
the Supine ; and recenseo, to review, has recensum, and recensitum. 

5 Absorbeo, to sup up, and exsorbeo, to sup out, have sometimes 
absorpsi, and exsorpsi in the Perfect. The latter, with resorbeo, to 
draw back, has no Supine. 

6 The Compounds of arceo have itum in the Supine : as, exerceo, 
exercui, exercitum, to exercise. 

7 The Compounds of taceo want the Supine : as, conticeo, conti- 
cui, to keep silence ; reticeo, reticui, to remain silent, to conceal. 

8 The Participle pransus is used in the Active sense of having dined, 

9 Desideo, to sit idle, dissideo, to disagree, persideo, to continue, 
prcendeo, to sit before, resideo, to sit down, to rest, and subsideo } to 
subside, want the Supine. 

10 The Compounds of mordeo, pendeo, spondeo, and tondeo, do not 
double the first syllable of the Perfect. See Rule 2, § 80. Im- 
pendeo, to overhang, has no Perfect or Supine. 



§81 



PRETERITES AND SUPINES. 



159 



Pres. 


Inf. 


Moveo, 11 


movere, 


Foveo, 


fovere, 


Voveo, 


vovere, 


Faveoj 


favere, 


Caveo, 


cavere, 


Paveo, 


paver e, 


Ferveo, 12 


fervere, 


Conmveo, 


connivere, 


Deleo, 


delere, 


Compleo, 13 


complere, 


Fleo, 


flere, 


Neo,' 


nere, 


Vieo, 


viere, 


Cieo," 


ciere, 


Oleo, 1 * 


olere, 


Suadeo, 


suadere, 


Rideo, 


rider e, 


Maneo, 


manere, 


Haereo, 


hserere, 


Ardeo, 


ardere, 


Tergeo, 


tergere, 


Mulceo, 


mulcere, 


Mulgeo, 


mulgere, 


Jubeo, 


jubere, 


Indulgeo, 


indulgere, 


Torqueo, 


torquere, 


Augeo, 


augere, 


Urgeo, 


urgere, 


Fulgeo, 


fulgere, 


Turgeo, 


turgere, 



Perf. 
movi, 
fovi, 
vovi, 
favi, 
cavi, 
pavi, 
ferbui, 
connrv i or 
delevi, 
complevi, 
flevi, 
nevi, 
vievi, 
(ciyi,) 
olui, 
sua si, 
rlsi, 
mansi, 
hsesi, 
arsi, 
tersi, 
mulsi. 



mulsi, < 



jussi, 

induls; 

torsi, 

auxi, 

ursi, 

falsi, 

tursi, 



Sup, 

motum, 

fotum, 

votum, 

fa u turn, 

cautum, 



■ixi, 

deletum, 

completum, 

fletum, 

netum, 

■vie turn, 

cltum , 

(olltum,) 

sua sum, 

risum, 

mansum, 

hsesum, 

arsum, 

tersum, 

mulsum, 

mulsum, or 

mulctum, 

jussum, 

indultum 

tortum, 

auctum, 



To move. 
To cherish. 
To vow. 
To favour. 
To beware of. 
To be afraid. 
To boil. 
To wink. 
To destoy. 
To fill. 
To weep. 
To spin. [sel. 
To hoop a ves* 
To stir up. 
To smell. 
To advise. 
To laugh. 
To stay. 
To stick. 
To burn. 
To wipe. 
To stroke* 

To milk. 

To order. 
To indulge. 
To twist. 
To increase. 
To press. 
To shine. 
To swell. 



11 Verbs in veo undergo a contraction in the Supine. Neuter 
Verbs in veo want the Supine: as, paveo. pavi, to be afraid. 

12 Fervo,fervi, another form of this Verb belonging to the Third 
Conjugation, is used in a few persons, and in the Present Infinitive. 

13 The other Compounds of the obselete Verb pleo are conjugated 
in the same way: as, expleo, impleo, repleo, suppleo. 

14 Clvi is the Perfect of cio of the Fourth Conjugation, having 
citum in the Supine. The Compounds, in the sense of calling, are 
generally conjugated according to this form: as excio, excitum. 

15 The Compounds of oleo which retain the sense of the Simple 
Verb have ui and itum: as, oboleo obolui, obolitmn, to smell strong- 
ly. The Compounds which adopt a different signification have evi 
and Hum: as, exoleo, exolevi, exoletum, to fade; obsbleo, obsolevi, 
obsoletum, to grow out of use; inoleo, inolevi, inoletum, or inolitum, 
to come into use. Aboleo, to abolish, has abolevi, abolitum; and 
adoleo, to grow up, to burn, has adolevi, adultum. 



160 



PRETERITES AND SUPINES. 



§81 



Algeo, 


al^ere, 


alsi, 


Lugeo, 


lu°:ere, 


luxi, 


Luceo, 


lucere, 


luxi, 


Frlgeo, 


frigere. 


frixij 



To be cold. 
To mourn. 
To shine. 
To be cold. 



The following Verbs want both Perfect and Supine : 



Aveo, to desire. 
Denseo, to grow thick. 
Flaveo, to be yellow. 
Glabreo, to be smooth. 
Hebeo, to be blunt. 
Lacteo, to grow milky. 



Liveo, to be black and blue. 
Mcereo, to be sorrowful 
Remdeo, to shine. 
Polleo, to be powerful. 
Scateo, to flow out. 



THIRD CONJUGATION. 



Verbs of the Third 


Conjugation form the Perfect and Su- 


pine variously. 










10. 




Pres. 


Inf. 


Perf Sup. 




Facio, 1 


facere. 


feci, factum, 


To do, to make. 


Jacio, 2 


jacere, 


jeci, jactum, 


To throw. 


AspIciOj 3 


aspicere, 


aspexi, aspectum, 


To behold. 


Alllcio, 


allicere, 


allexi, allectum, 


To allure. 


Fodio, 


fodere, 


fodi, fossum, 


To dig. 


Fugio, 


fugere, 


figi, fugltum, 


To fly. 


Capio, 4 


capere, 


cepi, captum, 


To take. 


Rapio, 


rapere, 


rapui, raptum, 


To seize 


Sapio, 


sapere. 


sapui, 


To taste, to be wise. 


Cupio, 


cupere, 


cuplvi, cupitum, 


To desire. 


Pario, 5 


parere, 


~ ~ • S partum, or 
peperi, < 1 „. ' 
* * ' I pari turn. 


To bring forth. 



1 Facio, when compounded with a Preposition, changes a into i: 
as, afficio, affeci, affectum, to affect. In the other Compounds the a 
is retained. A few Compounds end mfico, saidficor, and belong to 
the First Conjugation: as, amplifico, to enlarge; sacrifico, to sacri- 
fice: gratificor, to gratify; and ludiflcor, to mock. 

2 The Compounds of jacio, change a into i: as abjicio, abject, ab* 
jectum. 

3 The Compounds of the obsolete Verbs spZcio, and lacio, have 
exi, and ectum; except elicio, to draw out, which has elicui, and eZi- 
citum. 

4 The Compounds of capio, rapio, and sapio, change a into i: as, 
accipio,accepi, acceptum, to receive; abripio, abripui, abreptum, to 
carry off; consipio, consipui, to be in one's senses. 

6 The Compounds of pario have perui and pertum, and belong to 
the Fourth Conjugation: as, aperio, aperlre, aperui, apertum, to 
open. So optrio, to shut, to cover. But comperio, (which also has a 



§81 



PRETERITES AND SUPINES. 



161 



Pres. 
Quatio, 6 



Aeuo, 

Arguo, 

Batuo, 

Exuo, 

Imbuo, 

Induo, 

Mlnuo , 

Spuo, 7 

St&tuo, 

Sternuo, 

Suo, 

Trlbuo, 

Fluo, 

Struo, 

Luo, 8 

Ruo,9 

Metuo, 

Pino, 

Congruo, 

Ingruo, 

Annuo, 10 



BIbo, 

Scabo, 

LambOj 

Scrlbo, 

Nubo,* 1 

Glubo, 



Inf. 
quatere, 



acuere, 

arguere, 

batuere, 

exuere, 

imbuere, 

induere, 

minuere, 

spuere, 

statuere, 

sternuere, 

suere, 

tribuere, 

fluere, 

struere, 

luere, 

ruere, 

metuere, 

pluere, 

congruere, 

ingruere, 

annuere, 

bibere, 

scabere, 

lambere, 

scribere, 

nubere, 

glubere, 



Per/. Supine. 

(quassi,) quassum, 

UO. 



aeui, 

argui, 

batui, 

exui, 

imbui, 

indui, 

minui, 

spui, 

statui, 

sternui, 

sui, 

tribui, 

fluxi, 

struxi, 

lui, 

rui, 

metui, 

plui, 

congrui, 

ingrui, 

annul, 



acutum, 

argutum, 

batutum, 

exutum, 

imbutum, 

indutum, 

minutum, 

sputum, 

statu turn , 

sternutum, 

sutum, 

tributum, 

fluxum, 

struclum, 

liutum, 

rultum, 



BO. 



blbi, 

scabi, 

Iambi. 

scripsi, 

nupsi, 



bibltum, 



scriptum, 
nuptum, 



To shake. 



To sharpen. 

To show, to prove. 

To beat. 

To put off clothes. 

To moisten, to wet. 

To put on clothes. 

To lessen. 

To spit. 

To set, to place. 

To sneeze. 

To sew, to stitch. 

To give, to divide. 

To flow. 

To build. 

To pay, to wash. 

To rush, to fall. 

To fear. 

To rain. 

To agree. 

To assail. 

To assent. 



To drink. 
To scratch. 
To lick. 

To write. [ried. 
To veil, to be mar- 
To strip, to flay. 



Deponent form in the Present Indicative and Infinitive, comperior, 
comperiri,) to know a thing for certain, has comperi, compertum ; 
and reph'io, to find, has repSri, repertum. 

6 The Compounds of quatio take the form cutio, and have cussi 
and cussum : as, conditio, to shake violently, concussi, concussum. 

7 Respuo, to spit out, to reject, has no Supine. 

8 The Compounds of luo have utum in the Supine : as, abluo, 
ablui, ablutum, to wash away, to purify. 

9 The Compounds of ruo have utum iu the Supine : as, diruo, 
dirui, dirutum, to overthrow. Corruo, to fall together, and irruo t 
to rush in furiously, have no Supine. 

10 The other Compounds of the obsolete nuo, as abnuo, to refuse ; 
innuo, to nod with the head ; and renuo, to deny, likewise want the 
Supine. Abnuiturus, Fut. Participle from abnuo, is found. 

11 Nupta sum, another form of the Perfect, is sometimes used in- 
stead of nupsi. 

14* 



PRETERITES AND SUPINES. 



§81 



Pres. 
Dico, 
Duco, 

Vinco, 

Parco, 1 ^ 

Ico, 
Cresco, 



Nosco, 13 

Quiesco, 

Scisco, 

Suesco, 

Pasco, 14 

Disco, 

Posco, 

Glisco. 15 



Accendo, 
Ciido, 
Defendo, 
Edo,i6 

Mando, 

Prehendo., 

Scando, 

Divldo, 

Rado, 

Claudo,n 

Plaudo, 18 

Ludo, 



Inf. 
dicer e, 
ducere, 
vincere, 

parcere, 

icere, 
crescere, 



noscere, 

quiescere, 

sciscere, 

suescere, 

pascere, 

discere, 

poscere, 

gliscere. 



accendere, 

cudere, 

defendere, 

edere, 

mandere, 

prehendere, 

scandere, 

dividere. 

radere, 

claudere, 

plaudere, 

ludere, 



CO. 

Supine. 

dictum, To say. 

ductum ; To lead. 

victum, To overcome. 

peperci, or < parsum, or T 

parsi. \ parsltum, x ° s P are ' 

ictum, To strike. 

cretum, To grow. 



Per/. 
dixi, 
duxi, 
vici, 



1C1, 

crevi, 



SCO. 



no vi, 

quievi, 

sclvi, 

sufcvi, 

pavi, 

didlci, 

poposci, 

DO 

accendi, 

ciidij 

defendi, 

edi, 

mandi, 

prehendi, 

scandi, 

divlsi, 



notum, 

quietum, 

scitum, 

suetum, 

pastum, 



clausi, 
plausi, 



accensum, 

cusum, 

defensum, 

esum, 

mansum, 

prehensum, 

scansura, 

divlsum, 

rasum, 

clausum, 

plausum, 

lusum, 



To know. 
To rest. 
To ordain. 
To be accustomed. 
Tofeed. 
To learn. 
To demand- 
To glitter, to grow. 



To kindle. 
To forge. 
To defend. 
To eat. 
To chew. 
To take hold of. 
To climb. 
To divide. 
To shave. 
To close. 
To applaud. 
To play. 



12 The form, parsi and parcltum is seldom used. 

13 The Fut. Part, is nosciturus from noscitum, the old form of the 
Supine. Agnosco, to own, has agnovi, agniium; and cognosco, to 
know, has cognovi, cognitum. 

14 Coinpesco, to feed together, to restrain ; and dispesco, to sepa- 
rate, have compescui, and dispescui, without the Supine. 

15 Fatisco, to be weary, likewise wants both Perfect and Supine : 
ond also all Inceptive Verbs, unless when they adopt the Tenses of 
their Primitives : as, ardesco; to grow hot, arsi, arsum. § 88. Obs. 4. 

16 All the Compounds of Mo are conjugated in the same manner, 
except comedo, to eat up, which has comesum, or comestum in the 
Supine. See 83. 9. 

1? The Compounds of claudo change au into u: as, concludo t con- 
clusi, oic v.sum, to conclude. Circumclaudo is found in Caesar. 

18 The Compounds of plaudo, except ap- and circum-plaudo. 
change au into o : as, explodo, explosi. explosum, to reject. 



§81 



PRETERITES AND SUPINES. 



163 



Pre$. 


Inf. 


Per/. 


Sup. 




Trudo, 


trudere, 


trusi, 


triisum, 


To thrust. 


Leedo, W 


laedere, 


lsesi, 


laesum, 


To hurt. 


Rodo, 


rodere, 


rosi, 


rosum, 


To gnaw. 


Vado.20 


vadere, 








Togo. 


Cedo, 


cedere, 


cessi, 


cessum, 


To yield* 


Pando, 


pandere, 


pandi, 


J passum, or 
I pansum, 


To open. 


Fundo, 


fundere, 


fudi. 


fusum, 


To pour forth. 


Scindo, 


scindere, 


scldi, 


scissum, 


To cut. 


Findo, 


findere, 


fldi, 


fissum, 


To cleave. 


Tundo, 21 


tundere, 


tutudi, 


5 tunsum, or 
\ tusum, 


To beat. 


Cado, 22 


cadere, 


cecldi, 


cisum, 


To fall. 


Caedo, 23 


caedere, 


cecldi, 


caesum, 
^ tensum, or 
t tentum, 


To cut, to kill. 


Tendo, 2 * 


tendere, 


tetendi, 


To stretch. 


Pendo, 


pendere, 


pependi, 


pensum, 


To hang. 


Credo, 2 5 


credere, 


credldi, 


credltum, 


To believe. 


Vendo, 


vendere, 


vendldi, 


vendltum, 


To sell. 


Abscondo, 


abscondere ,abscondi 


, abscondltum 


, To hide. 


Strldo, 


stridere, 


strldi, 





To creak. 


Kudo, 


rudere, 


rudi, 





To bray as an ass. 


Sido, 2 6 


sidere, 


sidi, 


GO. 


To sink down. 


Cingo, 


cingere, 


cinxi, 


cinctum, 


To surround. 



*9 The Compounds of Icedo change ce into i: as, alhdo, allisi, allt» 
sum, to dash against. 

20 The Compounds of vado have the Perfect and Supine : as, 
evado, evdsi, evdsum, to escape. 

21 The Compounds of tundo have tudi, and tusum : as, contundo, 
to bruise, contudi, contusum. See § 80, Rule 2. Some of the 
Compounds have also, a Perfect Participle formed from tunsum: as, 
obtunsus, and retunsus, from obtundo, and reiundo. 

22 The Compounds of cado, want the Supine : as, accido, accidi, to 
happen; except incldo,incidi, incasum, to fall in; occido, occidi, oc* 
casum, to fall down; and recido, recidi, recasum, to fall back. 

23 The Compounds of c<vdo, change ce into i : as, accldo, accidi, 
acclsum, to cut about; decido, decldi, decisum, to cut off. 

24 The Compounds of tendo have generally tentum in the Supine, 
except extendo, to stretch out, and ostendo, to show, which have also 
tensum; the latter, almost always. 

2 $ The other Compounds of do which belong to the Third Conju- 
gation have also dldi, and ditum : as, condo, condidi, conditum, to 
build. Abscondo has sometimes abscondldi. See page 156, Note 1. 

2 6 The Compounds of sldo, adopt the Perfect and Supine of sedeo: 
as, consldo, consedi, consessum, to sit down. 



164 



PRETERITES AND SUPINES. 



§81 



Pres. 


Inf. 


Per/. 


FHgO,26 


fligere, 


flixi, 


Jungo, 


jungere, 


junxi, 


Lingo, 


lingere, 


linxi, 


Mungo, 


mungere, 


munxi, 


Plango, 


plangere, 


planxi, 


Rego, 2 ?, 


regere, 


rexi, 


Stinguo, 28 


stinguere, 


stinxi, 


Sugo, 


sugere, 


suxi, 


Tego, 


tegere, 


texi, 


Tinguo, 


tinguere, 


tinxi, 


Unguo, 


unguere, 


unxi, 


Surgo, 


surgere, 


surrexi 


Pergo, 


pergere, 


perrexi 


Stringo. 


stringere, 


strinxi, 


Fingo, 


fingere, 


finxi, 


Pingo, 


pingere, 


pinxi, 


Frango, 29 ; 


frangere, 


fregi, 


Ago, 30 


agere, 


egi, 


Tango j 


tangere, 


tetlgi, 


Lego, si 


legere, 


legi, 


Pungo, 32 


pungere, 


puptigi, 


Pango, 33 


pangere, 


panxi, 



Sup. 
flictum, 
junctum, 
linetum, 
munctum, 
planctum, 
rectum, 
stinctum, 
suctum, 
tectum, 
tinctum, 
unctum, 
surrectum, 
perrectum, 
strictum, 
fictum, 
pictum, 
fractum, 
actum, 
taetum, 
lectum, 
punctum 
pactum, 



To dash. 
To join. 
Tolick. 
To wipe the nose. 
To beat. 
To rule. 
To dash out. 
To suck. 
To cover. 
To dip. 
To anoint. 
To rise. 

To go forward 
To bind. 
To feign. 
To paint. 
To break. 
To do,to drive. 
To touch. 
To gather, to read. 
To prick. 
To drive in. 



26 The Compounds of fligo are conjugated in the same way, except 
profllgo, to dash down, which is a regular Verb of the First Conju- 
gation. 

27 The Compounds of rZgo change e into i: &s,dirigo, direxi } di* 
rectum, to direct; corrigo, correxi, correctum, to correct. 

28 Stinguo, tinguo, and unguo, are also written stingo, tingo, ungo. 

29 The Compounds of frango and tango change a into i: as, con* 
fringo, confregi, confractum, to break to pieces; attingo, attigi, aU 
tactum, to touch gently. 

30 Circumago, to drive round; perago, to finish; and coago, (con- 
tracted cogo,) to collect, retain the a; the other Compounds change a 
into i: as, abigo, abegi, abactum, to drive away. Dego (for deago,) to 
live, to dwell; prodigo, to lavish or squander; and satago, to be busy, 
want the Supine. JLmbigo, to doubt, has neither Perfect nor Supine. 

31 Lego, when compounded with ad, per, prcc, re, and sub, retains 
the e: as, allego, to choose. The other Compounds change e into i: 
as, colligo, to collect. Diligo, to love; intelligo, to understand, and 
negligo, to neglect, have, exi and ectum. Negligo has sometimes 
neglegi in the Perfect. 

32 The Compounds of pungo have punxi in the Perfect : as com* 
pungo, to sting, compunxi, compunction. Repungo, to prick again, 
has repupugi, and repunxi. 

33 Pango, in the sense of to bargain has pepigi; the Present is 
rarely used in this meaning; but instead of it paciscor is commonly 
employed. The Compouds which change a into i have pegi, and 
pactum : as, compingo, to fasten together, compegi ) compactum. Op* 



§81 



PRETERITES AND SUPINES. 



165 



Pres. 

Spargo,** 
Mergo, 
Tergo, 
Figo, 

Frigo, 

Verge, 
Clango, 
Ningo, 
Ango, 



Traho, 

Veho, 

Mejo, 35 



Inf. 

spargere, 
mergere, 
tergere, 
figere, 

frige re, 

vergere, 
clangere, 
ningere, 
angere, 



trahere, 
vehere, 
mejere, 



Per/. 

sparsi, 
mersi, 
tersi, 
fixi, 

frixi, 

clanxi, 

ninxi, 

anxi, 



Supine. 

sparsum, 
mersum, 
tersum, 
fixum, 
5 frixum, or 
I frictum, 



HO. 



traxi, 
vexi, 
minxi, 



tractum, 
vectum, 
mictum, 



LO. 



Colore 

Consulo, 

Alo, 

Molo, 

Antecello, 37 

Pello, 

Fallows 

Vello,39 

Sallo, 

Psailo, 

Tollo,40 



colere, 


colui, 


cultum, 


consulere, 


consului, 


consultum 


alere, 


alui, 


J all turn, or 
I allum, 


molere, 


molui, 


molltum, 


antecellere 
pellere, 


antecellui, 
pepuli, 




pulsum, 


failere, 


fefelli, 


falsum, 


vellere, 


velli, or vulsi, vulsum, 


sallere, 


salli, 


salsum, 


psallere, 


psalli, 






tollere, 


sustuli, 


sublatum, 



To spread. 
To dip, to plunge. 
To wipe. 
To fix. 

Tofry. 

To lie toward. 
To sound a trum- 
To snow. [pef. 
To vex. 



To draw. 
To carry. 
To make water. 



To till, to inhabit 
To consult. 

To nourish. 

To grind. 

To excel. 

To drive away. 

To deceive. 

To pull. 

To salt.[ strument. 

To play on an in* 

To lift up. 



pango, to fasten to, has also pegi and pactum. Of the other Com- 
pounds which retain a, the Perfect and Supine are not found. 

_ 34 The Compounds of spar go change a into e : as, aspergo } asper- 
si, aspersum, to besprinkle. 

35 Mingo is also used as the Present of minxi. 

36 Colo, when compounded with ob, changes o, into u: occulo, to 
hide. AccolOy to dwell near, and circumcblo, to dwell round, have 
no Supine. 

37 The other Compounds of the obsolete cello likewise want the 
Supine ; except percello, perculi, perculsum, to strike, to astonish. 
Recello likewise wants the Perfect. 

38 Refello, refellij to confute, wants the Supine. 

S9 Velio, when compounded with de, di, or per, has usually velli 
in the Perfect. The other Compounds, take either form indifferently. 

*0 Attollo and entollo, to raise up, have no Perfect or Supine of 
their own ; but those of affero and efftro, which agree with them in 
meaning, are sometimes assigned to them. 



166 



PRETERITES AND SUPINES. 



§81 







MO. 






Pres. 


Inf. 


Per/. 


Sup. 




Fremo, 


fremere, 


fremui. 


fremltum, 


To rage, to roar. 


Gemo. 


gemere, 


gemui, 


gemltum, 


To groan. 


Vomo, 


vomere, 


vomui, 


Yomltum, 


To vomit. 


Tremo, 
Demo. 


tremere, 
demere, 


tremu i 




To tremble. 
To take away. 


dempsi. 


demplum, 


Promo, 


promere, 


prompsi, 


promptum, 


To bring out. 


Sumo, 


sumere, 


sumpsi, 


sump turn, 


To take. 


Como, 


comSre, 


compsi, 


comptum, 


To deck, to dress . 


Emo, 41 


emere, 


emi, 


emptum, 


To buy. 


Premo, 42 


premere, 


pressij 

NO. 


pressum, 


To press. 


Pono, 


ponere, 


posui, 


posltum, 


To place. 


Gigno. 


gignere, 


genui, 


genltum, 


To beget. 


Cano ; 43 


canere, 


ceclni, 


cantum, 


To sing. 


Temno, 44 
Sperno, 


temnere, 
spernere, 






To despise. 
To disdain 


sprevij 


spretum, 


Sterno, 45 


sternere, 


stravi, 


stratum, 


To lay flat 


Slno, 


sinere, 


sivi, or sii, 


situm, 


To permit. 


Lino, 


line re, 


Hvi, or levi, 


Utam, 


To anoint. 


Cerno, 46 


cernere, 


crevij 


cretum, 


To see. to decree. 






P0 ; QUO. 




Carpo, 4 ? 


carpere, 


carp si, 


carptum, 


To pluck. 


Clepo, 


clepere, 


clepsi, 


cleptum, 


To steal. 


Repo, 


repere, 


repsi, 


reptum, 


To creep. 


Scalp o, 


scalpere, 


scalpsi, 


scalptum, 


To engrave. 


Sculpo, 


sculpere, 


sculpsi, 


sculp turn, 


To carve. 


Serpo, 


serpere, 


serpsi, 


serptum, 


To creep. 



41 Demo, promo, and sumo, are Compounds of emo. The other 
Compounds change e into i, and are conjugated like the Simple Verb : 
as, adimo, ademi, ademptum, to take away. 

42 The Compounds of prtmo change e into i: as, comprlmo, com* 
pressi, compressum, to press together. 

43 The Compounds of cdno have cinui, and centum ; as, concino, 
concinui, concentum, to sing in concert. Of accino, to sing to, and 
inter cino, to sing between, or during, no Perfect or Supine is founde 

44 Contemno, to despise, has contempsi, contemptum. 

45 Constemo and externo, when they signify to alarm, are regular 
Verbs of the First Conjugation. The other Compounds are conju- 
gated like sterno : as, insterno, instravi, instratum, to spread upon. 

46 The Perfect crevi is used in the sense of to declare one's self 
heir, or enter on an inheritance. In the sense of seeing-, cerno has 
properly neither Perfect nor Supine. 

47 The Compounds of carpo change a into e: as, discerpo, dis. 
cerpsi, discerptum, to tear in pieces. 



PRETERITES AND SUPINES. 



167 



Pres. 


Inf. 


Perf. 


Sup. 




Strepo, 


strepere, 


strepui, 


strepltum, 


To make a noise* 


Rumpo, 


rumpere, 


rupi, 


ruptum, 


To break. 


Coquo, 


coquere, 


coxi, 


coctum, 


To boil. 


Linquo, 48 


linquere, 


liqui, 

RO 




To leave. 


Quaero, 49 


quaeere, 


quaeslvi, 


quaesitum, 


To seek. 


Tero, 


terere, 


trivi, 


tritum, 


To wear* 


Verro, 


verrere, 


verri, 


versum, 


To sweep. 


Uro, 


urere, 


ussi, 


ustum, 


To burn. 


Curro ? 50 


currere, 


cucurri, 


cursum, 


To run. 


Gero, 


gerere, 


gessi, 


gestum, 


To carry. 


Fiiro, 51 


furere, 


. 





To be mad. 


8ero, 5 2 


serere, 


sevi, 

SO. 


satum, 


To sow. 


Arcesso, 


arcessere, 


arcessivi, 


arcessitum, 


To call, or send 


Capesso, 


capessere, 


capessivi, 


capessitum, 


To take. {for. 


Facesso, 


facessere, 


facessivi, 


facessitum, 


To do, go aivay. 


Lacesso, 


lacessere, 


lacesslvi, 


lacessitum, 


To provoke. 


Viso, 


visere, 


visi, 





To go to visit. 


Incesso, 


incessere, 


incessi, 


... 


To attack. 


Depso, 


depsere, 


depsui, 


depstum, 


To knead. 


Pinso, 


pinsere, 


5 pinsui, or * 
\ pinsi, i 

TO. 


pinsum, 
pistum, or 
pinsltum, 


To bake. 


Flecto, 


flectere, 


fiexi, 


flexum, 


To bend. 


Plecto, 


plectere, 


plexi&plexu 


I, plexum, 


To plait. 


Necto, 


nectere, 


nexi & nexui 


, nexum, 


To tie or knit. 


Pecto, 


pectere, 


pexi & pexui 


, pexum, 


To dress, or 


Meto, 


metere, 


messui, 


messum, 


To reap. [comb. 


Peto, 


petere, 


petivi, 


petitum, 


To seek. 



48 The Compounds of linquo have lictum in the Supine : as, relin- 
quo, reliqui, rellctum, to forsake j so delinquo, to fail, 

49 The Compounds of qucero change ee into i ; as, acqulro, acqui- 
slvi, acquisltum, to acquire. 

50 Curro, when compounded with circum, re, sub, and trans, sel- 
dom takes the reduplication. The other Compounds sometimes take 
the reduplication, and sometimes not. 

51 See § 84. 4. 

52 The Compounds of sero which retain the sense of planting and 
sowing, have sevi and situm: as, consero, consevi, consltum, to plant 
together. Those which adopt a different signification have serui and 
serlum: as, assSro, asserui, assertum, to claim. The latter class of 
Compounds properly belongs to the old verb sSro, to knit, to plait. 



168 



PRETERITES AND SUPINES. 



§81 



Pres. 


Inf. 


Perf. 


Sup-. 




Mitto, 


mittere, 


mlsi, 


missum, 


To send. 


Verto,53 


vertere, 


verti, 


versum, 


To turn. 


Sterto, 


stcrtere. 


stertui, 


. 


To snore* 


Sisto,** 


sistere, 


stlti, 

vo, xo. 


statum, 


To stop. 


Vivo, 


vivere, 


vixi, 


victuin, 


To live. 


Solvo, 


solvere, 


solvi, 


solutum, 


To lose. 


Volvo, 


volvere, 


volvi, 


volutum, 


To roll. 


Texo, 


texere, 


texui, 


textum, 


To weave. 




FOURTH CONJUGATION, 




Rule 


. — Verbs of the Fourth Conjugation 


have %vi in the 


Perfect, 


and iturn in the Supine : 


as, 




Pres. 


Inf. 


Perf. 


Sup. 




Audio, 


audire, 


audivi, 


auditum, 


To hear. 


Munio, 


munire, 


munivi, 


munltum, 


To fortify. 






EXCEPTIONS. 




Singultio, 


singultire, 


singultlvi, 


singultum, 


To sob. 


Sepelio, 


sepelire,] 


sepelivi, 


sepultum, 


To bury. 


Venio, 


venire, 


veni, 


ventum, 


To come. 


Veneo, 1 


venire, 


venii, 





To be sold. 


Salio, 2 


salire, 


salui, or salii 


saltum, 


To leap. 


Amicio, 


amiclre, 


J amicui, or 
( amixi. 


amictum, 


To clothe. 


Vincio, 


vincire, 


vinxi, 


"vinctum, 


To tie. 


Sancio, 


sancire, 


( sanxi, or < 
I sancivi, ( 


sanctum, or 
sancitum, 


To ratify. 


Cambio, 


cambire, 


campsi, 


camp sum, 


To change mo 


Sepio, 


sepire, 


sepsi, 


septum, 


T o enclose. \ney 


Haurio, 


haurire, 


hausi, 5 


haustum, or 
hausum, 


To draw out. 


Sentio, 


sentire, 


sensi, 


sensurn, 


To feel. 


Raucio, 


raucire, 


rausi, 


rausum, 


To be hoarse. 


Sarcio, 


sarclre, 


sarsi, 


sartum, 


To mend, or re- 
pair. 



53 The Compounds of verto are conjugated in the same manner, 
except revert or , to return, which is often used as a Deponent Verb; 
and divert or to turn aside, and prcevertor, to outrun, which are like- 
wise Deponent, but want the Perfect Participle. 

54 Sisto i to stand still (a neuter ^erb,) has neither Perfect nor Su- 
pine. The Compounds have stlti, and stitum: as. assisto, astiti^ as- 
titum, to stand by. But these are seldom found in the Supine. 

1 For the Conjugation of veneo, see page 173. 

2 The Compounds of salio have generally silui. sometimes silii, or 
silivi, in the Perfect, and saltum in the Supine: as, transilio, transit 
luij iransilii, or transilivi, transultum, to leap over. Jlbsultum, cir- 
cumsulium. and prosultum } are scarcely used. 



82 



DEPONENT PARTICIPLES. 



169 



Farcio, 3 fareire, farsi, fartum, To cram. 

Fulcio, fulclre, fulsi, fultum, To prop. 

Ferio, ferire, To strike. 

The following Verbs have the Perfect formed regularly, but want 
the Supine : 



Gestio, to show one's joy by the 

gestures of the body. 
Ineptio, to play the fool. 



Caecutio, to be dim-sighted. 
Dementio, to be mad. 
Ferocio, to be fierce. 
GlScio, to cluck as a hen. 

For Desiderative Verbs which belong to this Conjugation, see 
§ 88. 3. 



§ 82. LIST OF DEPONENT VERBS IRREGULAR IN 
THE PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 

Rule. — Deponent and common verbs form the per- 
fect participle in the same manner as if the active voice ex- 
isted, § 72. 3. 

To this rule there no exceptions in the First con- 
jugation. 

EXCEPTIONS IN THE SECOND CONJUGATION 



Reor, 


reri, 


ratus, 


To think. 


Misereor, * 


misereri, 


misertus, 


To pity. 


Fateor. 2 


fateri, 


f ass us, 


To confess. 


Medeor, 


mederi, 




To heal. 




EXCEPTIONS IN THE THIRD CONJUGATION, 


Labor, 


labi, 


lapsus. 


To slide. 


Ulciscor, 


ulcisci, 


ultus, 


To revenge. 


Utor, 


uti. 


usus, 


To use. 


LSquor, 


loqui, 


loquutus, 


To speak. 


Sequor, 


sequi, 


sequutus, 


Tofollow,. 


Queror, 


queri, 


questus, 


To complain. 



3 The Compounds of farcio change a into e: as, refer cio, refersi, 
referturrtj to fill up. 

1 Misereor has also miseritus in the Perfect Participle, 

2 The Compounds of fateor change a into i, and h&vefessus: as, 
conftteor, confessus, to confess. Diffiteor, to deny, wants the Perf. 
Participle. 

3 Loquor .and sSquor have likewise locutus and secutus in the Per- 
fect Participle. 

15 



170 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



§83 



Nitor,* 

Paciscor, 

Gradior, 

Proficiscor, 

Nanciscor, 

Patior, 

Apiscor, 5 

Comminiscor, 

Fruor, 

Obliviscor, 

Expergiscor, 

M$rior, 6 

Nascor, 7 

Orior, 8 



niti, 


nisus, or nixus, 


To strive. 


pacisci, 


pactus, 


To bargain. 


gradi, 


gressus, 


Togo. 


proficisci, 


profectus, 


To go a journey 


nancisci, 


nactus, 


To obtain. 


pati, 


passus, 


To suffer. 


apisci, 


aptus, 


To get. 


comminisci, 


commentus, 


To devise , 


frui, 


frultus, or fructus, 


To enjoy* 


oblivisci, 


oblitus, 


To forget. 


expergisci, 


experrectus, 


To awake. 


mori, 


mortuus, 


To die. 


nasci, 


natus, 


To be born. 


oriri, 


ortus, 


To rise. 



The following Verbs want the Perfect Participle : 



Defetiscor,-i, to be weary. 
Irascor, -i, to be angry. 
Liquor, -i, to melt. 



Reminiscor, -i, to remember. 
Ringor, -i, to grin like a dog. 
Vescor, -i, to feed. 



EXCEPTIONS IN THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. 

Metior, metiri, mensus, To measure. 

Ordior, ordiri, orsus, To begin, 

Experior, experiri, expertus, To try. 

Opperior, opperlri, opertus, To wait. 



§ 83. IRREGULAR VERBS, 

Irregular Verbs are those in which some of the secon- 
dary parts are not formed from the primary, according to the 
rules for regular verbs. 

4 Nitor, when compounded with con, in, ob, re, sub, has nixus 
oftener than nisus. Adnltor, to lean to, has either indifferently. 
Enitor, in the sense of to bring forth, generally takes enixa in the 
Participle. 

5 JLdApiscor and indipiscor, to obtain, have adeptus and indeptus. 

6 Morior seems to have originally belonged to the Fourth Conjuga- 
tion. The Infinitive moriri occurs in Plautus and Ovid ; and mori- 
mur, with the penult long, is also found. The Imperative is morere. 
This verb, with nascor and orior, has iturus in the Fut. Part.: as, 
moriturus, nasciturus, oriturus. 

7 Nascor is Passive in signification, but has no active voice 

8 Orior has orire, and always oriretur in the Imperfect Subjunc- 
tive, according to the Fourth Conjugation. Likewise in the Com- 
pounds adoriretur, exoriretur; and not adoreretur, exoreretur. The 
Present follows the Third, though orlris and oritur, with the penult 
long, are also found. 



§ 83 IRREGULAR VERBS. 171 

The irregular verbs are six ; namely, sum, eo, queo, volo, 
fero, and fio. Their compounds are irregular, also. 

Sum has been already inflected, § 54. After the same 
manner are inflected its compounds, ad-, ab-,de-, inter-, ob-, 
prce-, sub-, supersum; as, adsum, adesse, adfui, &c. Insum 
wants the preterite. 

1. Prosum, to do good, inserts d where the simple verb 
begins with e. It is inflected thus. 

Prosum, prodesse, profui. To do good. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Pr. Prosum, prodes, prodest, prosiimus, prodestis, prosunt. 
Imp. Prod-eram, -eras, -erat, -eramus, -eratis, -erant. 

Perf. Profu-i, -isti, -it, -imus, -istis, J " _ ' 

' ( or-ere. 

Plup. Profu-eram, -eras, -erat, -eramus, -eratis, -erant. 

Fut. Prod-ero, -eris, -erit, -erimus, -eritis, -erunt. 

F. P. Profu-ero, -eris, -erit, -erimus, -eritis, -erint. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Pro-sim, -sis, -sit, -simus, -sitis, -sint. 
Imp. Prod-essem, -esses, -esset, -essemus,-essetis,-essent. 
Perf. Profu-erim, -eris, -erit, -erimus, -eritis, -erint. 
Plup. Profu-issem, -isses, -isset, -issemus, -issetis, -issent. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Pres. 2. Prod-es, or prod-esto, 2. Prod-este, or prod-estote, 
3. Prod-esto j 3. Pro-sunto. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Prod-esse, Fut. Esse pro-futurus, -a- um, 

Perf. Pro-fuisse, F. P. Fuisse pro-futurus, -a, -um. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Pro-futurus, -a, -um. 



2. Possum is compounded of potis, " able," and sum, " I 
am." It is thus inflected. 

Possum, posse, potui, / can, lam able. 



172 IRREGULAR VERBS. § 83 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Possum, potesj potest; possumus, potestis, possunt. 
Imp. Pot-eram, -eras, -erat, -eramus, -eratis, -erant. 

Perf. Potu-i, -isti, -it, -Imus/ -istis, \ - eru _ nt > 
■ '■ ' ( or -ere. 

Plup. Potu-eram,-eras, -erat, -eramus, -eratis -erant. 

Fut. Pot-ero, -eris, -erit, -erimus, -eritis, -erunt. 

F. P. Potu-ero, -eris, -erit, -erimus, -eritis, -erint. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Pos-sim, -sis, -sit, -simus, -sitis, -sint. 

Imp. Pos-sem, -ses, -set, -semus, -setis, -sent, 

Perf. Potu-erim, -eris, -erit, -erimus, -eritis, -erint. 

Plup. Potu-issem, -isses, -isset, -issemus, -issetis, -issent. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Posse, Perf. Potuisse, the rest wanting. 

3. Eo, Ire, ivi, itum, To go. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Pr. Eo, is, it; Imus, itis, eunt 

Imp. Ibam, ibas, ibat; ibamus, ibatis, ibant 

Per. Ivi, ivisti, ivit ; ivimus, ivistis, iveruntorivere. 

Plu. Iveram, i v eras, iv erat; iveramus,iveratis,iverant. 

Fut. Ibo, ibis, ibit; ibimus, ibitis. ibunt. 

F. P. Ivero, iveris, iverit ; iverimus,iv eritis, iverint. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Pr. Earn, eas, eat; eamus, eatis, eant. 
Imp. Irem, ires, iret; iremus, iretis, irent. 
Per. Iverim, iveris, iverit; iverimus, iveritis, iverint. 
Plu. Ivissem, ivisses, ivisset; ivissemus, ivissetis, ivissent. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. INFINITIVE MOOD. 

^ rT - ( ite, Pr. Ire. 

P *-Jlto, lt0 ' iitote, eunt0 -P E R. Ivisse. 

Fut. Esse iturus, -a, -urn. 
F. P. Fuisse iturus, -a, -urn. 
PARTICIPLES. GERUNDS. SUPINES. 

Pr. lens, Gen. euntis. Eundum. 1. Itum. . 

Fut. Iturus, -a, -urn. Eundi, &c. 2. Itu. 



§ 83 IRREGULAR VERBS. 173 

The compounds of Eo are conjugated after the same man- 
ner; ad-, ah-, ex-, co-, tn-, inter-, oh-, red-, sub-, per-, 
p?ce-, ante-, prod-eo; only in the perfect, and the tenses 
formed from it, they are usually contracted ; thus, Adeo, adire, 
adii, seldom adlvi, aditum, to go to ; perf. Adii, adiisti, 
or adisti, &c. adieram, adierim, &c. So likewise veneo, 
venii, — — , to be sold, (compounded of venum and eo.) But 
ambio, -ire, -tvi, -Itum, to surround, is a regular verb of 
the fourth conjugation. 

Eo, like other neuter verbs, is often rendered in English 
under a passive form ; thus, it, he is going 5 wit, he is gone ; 
iverat, he was gone; iverit, he may be gone, or shall be 
gone. So, venit, he is coming ; venit, he is come ; vene- 
rat, he was come, &c. In the passive voice these verbs for 
the most part are used only impersonally ; as, itur ah illo, 
he is going ; ventum est ah illis, they are come. We find 
some of the compounds of eo, however, used personally ; as, 
pericula adeuntur, — are undergone. Cic. Libri sibylltni 
aditi sunt, — w^ere looked into. Liv. Flumen pedibus trans- 
iri potest. Caes. Inimicitia suheantur. Cic. 

Queo, I can, and Nequeo, I cannot, are conjugated the 
same way as eo ; only they want the imperative and the ge- 
runds ; and the participles are seldom used. 

4. Volo, velle, volui, To will, to he willing, to wish. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Per. Volu-i, -isti, -it; -lmus, -istis, 



Pr. Vol-o, vis, vult; voliimus, vultis, volunt. 
Imp. Vol-ebam, -ebas, -ebat; -ebamus, -ebatis, -ebant. 

-erunt, 
. or -ere. 

Plu. Volu-eram,-eras, -erat; -eramus, -eratis, -erant. 
Fut. Vol-am, -es, -et; -emus, -etis, -ent. 
F. P, Volu-ero, -eris, -erit; -erimus, -eritis, -erint. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Pr. Velim, velis, velit; velimus, velitis, velint. 

Imp. Vellem, velles, vellet; vellemus, velletis, vellent. 
Per. Volu-erim, -erit, -erit; -erimus, -eritis, -erint. 
Plu. Volu-issem,-isses. -isset; -issemus, -issetis, -issent. 
15* 



174 IRREGULAR VERBS. §83 

INFINITIVE MOOD. PARTICIPLES. 

Pn. Velle. Pere. Voluisse. Pres. Volens. 



5. Nolo, nolle, nolui. To beunwilling. [From non volo.~\ 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Pr, N5lo 5 non-vis, non- vult ; nolumus, non-vultis, nolunt. 

Imp. Nol-ebam, -ebas, -ebat, -ebamus, -ebatis, -ebant. 

Per. Nolu-i,' -isti, -it; -imus, -istis, < "_-•*" 

Plu. Nolu-eram,-eras, -erat; -eramus, -eratis, -erant* 
Fut. Nol-am, -es, -et ; -emus, -etis, -ent. 

F. P. Nolu-ero, -eris, -erit; -erimus, -eritis, -erint. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Pr. Nolim, nolis, nolit; nolimus, nolitis, nolint. 
Imp. Nollem, nolles, nollet; noil emus* nolletis, nollent. 
Per. Nolu-erim, -eris, -erit; -erimus, -eritis, -erint. 
Plu. Nolu-issem,-isses. -isset; -issemus:, -issetis, -issent. 

IMPERATIVE. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE, 

p_ ( Noli or { polite or Pr. Nolle. Pr. Nolens. 

\ Nolito. ( nolitote. Per. Noluisse. The rest it-anting. 



6. Malo, malle, malui. To be more willing. [Magis volo.~\ 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Pr. Mai-o, mavis, mavult; malumus. mavultis, malunt. 

Imp. Mal-ebam, -ebas, -ebat; 

Per, Malu-i, -isti, -it; 

Plu. Malu-eram, -eras, -erat; 
Fut. Mal-am, -es, -et; 
F. P. Malu-ero, -eris, -erit ; 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Pr. Malim, malis, malit ; malimus. malitis, malint. 
Imp. Mallem, malles, mallet ; mallemus, malletis, mallent. 
Per. Malu-erim, -eris, -erit ; -erimus. -eritis, -erint. 
Plu. Malu-issem,-isses, -isset ; -issemus, -issetis, -issent. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Pr. Malle. Per. Maluisse. The rest not used. 



-ebamus, 


-ebatis, 


-ebant, 


-imus. 


-istis, < 


-erunt 
or -ere. 


-eramus. 


-eratis, 


-erant 


-emus, 


-etis, 


-ent. 


-erimus, 


-eritis, 


-erint. 



§83 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



17B 



7. Fero, ferre, tuli, latum. To carry , to bring, or suffer. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD 

Pr. Fero, fers, fert ; ferimus, fertis, ferunt. 

Imp. Fer-ebam, -ebas, -ebat ; -ebamus, -ebatis, -ebant* 

Per. Tul-i, -isti, -it; -lmus, -istis, < 

J ( or -ere. 

Plu. Tul*eram, -eras, -erat; -eramus, -eratis. -erant. 

Fut. Fer-am, -es, -et; -emus, -etis, -ent. 

F. P. Tul-ero, -eris, -erit ; -erimus, -eritis, -erint. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Pr. Fer-am, -as, -at; -amus, -atis, -ant. 

Imp. Fer-rem, -res, -ret ; -remus -retis. -rent. 

Per. Tul-erim, -eris, -erit; -erimus, -eritis, -erint. 

Plu. Tul-issem, -isses, -isset; -issemus, -issetis, -issent. 

IMPERATIVE MOOP. 
Pr. Fer, or ferto, -ferto ; ferte, or fertote, ferunto, 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Pr. Ferre. Fut. Esse laturus, -a, -urn. 

Per. Tulisse. F. P. Fuisse laturus, -a, -um. 



PARTICIPLES. 

Pr. Ferens. 

Fut. Laturus, -a, -um. 



GERUNDS. 

IV. Ferendum, 
G. Ferendi, &c. 



SUPINES. 

1. Latum. 

2. Latu. 



PASSIVE VOICE. 

Feror, ferri, latus. To be brought. 



fertur; ferlmur, fenmlni, feruntur , 



INDICATIVE MOOD, 

Pr Feror, $ fer £ is 

( or ferre, 

Imp. Fer-ebar, \ "® 5?? > -ebatur; -ebamur, -ebamlni,.e bantur. 

Per. Latus sum, or fui, latus es, or fuisti, &c. 

Plu, Latus eram, or fueram. latus eras ; or fueras, &cc, 

Fut. Ferar. \ oM'efere S ^ er ^ tur > feremur, fere mini, ferentur, 
F. P. Latus fuero. latus fueris, 8cc. 



176 IRREGULAR VERBS. § 83 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Pit. Ferar, J or^ferlre S feratur \ feramur, feramlni, ferantur. 

Imp. Ferrer, J f g^?^ SOr > ferreturjferremurjfeiTeminijfeTrentirr. 
Per. Latus sim, or fuerim, latus sis, or fueris, &c. 
Pltt. Latus essem, or fuissem, latus esses, or fuisses, &c. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Pr. Ferre, or fertor, fertor ; ferimini, feruntor. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. PARTICIPLES. 

Pr. Ferri. Per. Latus, -a, -um. 

Per. Esse, or fuisse latus, -a, -um. Fut. Ferendus, -a, -um. 
Fut. Latum iri. 

In like manner are conjugated the compounds of fero ; as, 
affero, attuli,alldtu?n ; aufero, abstuli, ablatum ; differo, 
distuli, dilatum; confero, contuli, collatum ; infero, intuit, 
illatum ; offero, obtuli, oblatum ; effero, extuli, elatum. 
So, circum-, per-, trans-, de-, pro-, ante-, prce-, re-fero. 
In some writers we find adfero, adtuli, adlatum ; contain m ; 
inlatum ; obfero, &c. for offero, &c. 

Obs. 1. Most part of the above verbs are made irregular 
by contraction. Thus, nolo is contracted for non volo ; malo 
for magis volo ; fero, fers, fert, &c. for feris, ferit, &c. 
Feror, ferris or ferre, fertur, for ferreris, &c. 



8. Fio, fieri, factus. To be made, or done, to become. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Pr. Fio, fis, fit; fimus, fitis, fiunt. 

Imp. Fiebam, fiebas, fiebat; fiebamus, fiebatis, fiebant. 
Per. Factus sum, or fui, factus es, or fuisti, &c. 
Pltj. Factus eram, or fueram, factus eras, or fueras, &c. 
Fut. Fiam, fies, fiet ; fiemus, fietis, fient, 
F. P. Factus fuero, factus fueris, &c. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Pr. Fiam, fias, fiat ; fiamus, fiatis, fiant. 
Imp. Fierem, fieres, fieret ; fieremus, fieretis, fierent. 
Per. Factus sim, or fuerim, factus sis, or fueris, &c. 
Plu. Factus essem, or fuissem, factus esses, or fuisses, See. 



§ 83 IRREGULAR VERBS. 177 

IMPERATIVE MOOD, 

*■ Irlto, fito: jfiSte, fiunt0 - 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Pr. Fieri, 

Per. Esse, or fuisse factus, -a, -urn. 

Fut. Factum iri. 



PARTICIPLES SUPINE. 

Per. Factus, -a, -um. 2. Factu. 

Fut. Faciendus, -a, -um. 

Obs* 2. The third person singular of Jig is often used im- 
personally 5 as, ft, " it happens" febat, " it happened". 

Obs. 3. Fio is used as the passive of facio, from which it 
takes the participles. The compounds of facio which retain 
a have Jio in the passive; as, calefacio, "I warm," calefio 
" I become warm," " I am warmed," &c. But those com- 
pounds which change facio into Jicio have the regular pas- 
sive mficior, as, corfcio, conficior, &c. 

9. To irregular verbs may be added Edo, " to eat." 
Though this is a regular verb of the third conjugation, it 
has an irregular form resembling sum in the Pres. Indicative, 
Imperfect Subjunctive, the Imperative, and the Present Infi- 
nitive ,thus; 

Edo, edere or esse, edi, esum, To eaU 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Edo, ] edi ®' «**• edimus, } *? lt }*> edunt 
' ( or es, or est, ( or estis, 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

j ( Ederem, ederes, ederet, ederemus, ederetis, ederentj 
( or essem, esses, esset, essemus, essetis essent. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

p ( Ede, or edito, edito; edite, or editote, ) -, . 

rRES# \ Es, or esto, estoj este, or estote, \ eauni °* 



178 DEFECTIVE VERBS. § 84 

§ 84. DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

Defective Verbs are those which are not used in some 
of their parts. 

1. These three, ddi, coepi, and memini, are used only in 
the preterite tenses, that is, in the perfect, and the tenses de- 
rived from it, and for this reason are called Preterite 
Verbs. 

Obs. 1. Cospi has a present as well as a perfect significa- 
tion i and hence cceperam, has the sense of the imperfect, as 
well as of the pluperfect ; and coepero, of the future as well 
as of the future perfect; thus, ccepi, " I begin" or "I have 
begun;" ccepera??i, "I began" or U I had begun;" ccepero, 
"I shall begin" "I shall have begun;" and so of the sub- 
junctive. 

Obs. 2. Odi and memini have only the present, imperfect, 
and future sense; as, odi, "I hate;" oderam, "1 hated;" 
odero, " I will hate." 

2. The parts of these verbs in use are as follows $ viz : 
Odi, oderam, odero, oderim, odissem, odisse. 

Participles, osus, osurus. 
Coepi, coeperam, coepero, coeperim, coepissem, coepisse. 

Participles, coeptus, coepturus. 
Memini, memineram, meminero, meminerim, meminissem, 
meminisse. Imperative, memento, me?nentdte. 

3. The verb novi is also used as a preterite, having like 
odi and memini only the sense of the present, the imperfect, 
and future. It differs from the others, however, in having a 
present, nosco, w T hich properly has an inceptive sense, mean- 
ing " I begin to know," "I learn;" hence novi, "I have 
learned," that is " I know." 

The parts of novi in use, are as follows 5 viz, 

Novi, noveram, novero, noverim, novissem, novisse; 
Contracted, ndram, norim, nfissem, nosse. 

4. There are many verbs not usually considered among 
defectives w r hich want certain tenses or numbers or persons ; 
thus, do " I give," has neither dor nor der. Fari to speak, 
with its compounds, is used only by the poets, and by them 
chiefly in the third person ; fatur, the imperative fare, and 
the participle fa tus. The ablative gerund, fando, occurs in 
a passive sense, 



§84 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 



179 



FurZrcto be mad, wants the first pers. sing, and the se- 
cond pers. pi. of the pres. and probably all the future of the 
indicative ; and the imperative, also the Perfect and Supine» 

5. The following defective verbs are those which most 
frequently occur. Aio "I say;" — inquam, U I say," used 
only between words quoted, and never stands at the begin- 
ning 5— -forem, "I should be;" the same as essem;~ave, and 
salve ^hail;" Cedo, " tell thou," or " give me ;" quceso, "I 
beseech," originally the same as qucero. It is used common- 
ly as an interjection. 

The parts of these verbs remaining are the following. 

1. Aio, J say, I affirm. 

Ind. Pres. Aio, ais, ait, ■■ ■ aiunt. 

Imp. Aiebam, aiebas. aiebat, aiebamus, aiebatis, aiebant* 

Perf. . aisti, ait, — ■ 

Sub. Pres. aias, aiat, aiant. 

Imp. Pres. — ai, ■ ■ ' ■ 

Par£.pRES. aiens, 

2. Inquam, " I say." 
Ind. Pres. Inquam, inquis, inquit: inquimus, inquitis, inquiunt. 

inquebant 



Imp. 

p EE . 

Fut. 

Imp. Pres. 

Part. 'Pres. inquiens 



inquiebat;- 
inquisti, inquit; 
inquies, inquiet; - 
inque, inqulto; 



inqulte, 



Sub. 
Inf. 



Imp. 
Fut. 



Forem , 



3. Forem, I should be. 
fores, foret, 



forent. 



Fore, to be about to be, same asfuturum esse. 
4. Ave, " hail." 
Imp. Pres. Ave, or aveto j avete, or avetote. 

Inf. Pres. Avere. 

5. Salve, hail. 
Ind. Fut. Salvebis. 

Imp. Pres. Salve, or salve to, salvete, or sahetote. 

Inf. Pres. Salvere. 

6. Cedo, tell, give. 

Imp. Pres. Cedo, cedo, or cedlte, contracted cette. 

7. Qu-Eso, I beseech. 

Ind. Pres. Quseso, , — — , quaesumus, , . 

6. Ausim, faxim, SLndfaxo, sometimes called defective verbs are 
properly old forms of tenses ; Ausim being put for auserim, from 
audeo, to dare ; and faxim, &n&faxo,fece'rim and fecero from facio. 
So also age and aglte, il come," are imperatives from ago in a some- 
what different sense, just as ave, " hail," is an imperative from aveo, 
"to be well." 



180 



IMPERSONAL VERBS. 



§85 



§ 85. IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

1 . Impersonal Verbs are those which are used only in the 
third person singular, and do not admit of a personal subject 
or nominative before them. 

2. Impersonal verbs when translated literally into English, 
have before them the neuter pronoun it ; as, delectat, " it de- 
lights," decetj " it becomes," contingit, " it happens ," evenit, 
" it comes to pass ;"&c. They are inflected thus, 

1st. Conj. 2d Conj. 3d. Conj. 4th Conj. 



Ind. Pre. Delectat, Decet, 

Imp. Delectabat. Decebat, 

Per. Delectavit, Decuit, 

Plu. Delectaverat, Decuerat, 

Fut. Delectabit, Decebit, 

F. P. Delectaverit. Decuerit. 

Sub pRE.Delectet, Deceat, 

Imp. Delectaret, Deceret, 

Per. Delectaverit, Decuerit, 

Plu. Delectavisset. Decuisset. 



Contingit, 

Contingebat, 

Contigit, 

Contigerat. 

Continget, 

Contigeri.. 



Evenit, 

Eveniebat, 

Evenit, 

Evenerit. 

Eveniet, 

Evenerit. 



Contingat, Eveniat, 

Contingeret. Eveniret, 

Contigerit, Evenerit, 

Contigisset. Evenisset. 



Inf. Pre. Delectare 
Per. Delectavisse. 



Decere, 
Decuisse. 



Contingere, 
Contigisse. 



E venire, 
Evenisse. 



3. Most Latin verbs may be used impersonally n the pas- 
sive voice especially Neuter, or Intransitive verbs, which 
otherwise have no passive ; as, pugnatur, " it is fought 5" 
favetur, " it is favored 5" curritur, " it is run ;" vemtur, u it 
is come;" from piigno,faveo, curro, and venio. Thus, 

Ind. Pre. Pugna tur Favetur, Curritur, Venitur, 

Imp. Pugnabatur, Favebatur, Currebatur, Veniebatur, 

Per. Pugna turn est, 1 Fautum est, 1 Cursum est. 1 Ventum est, 1 

Plu. Pugna turner at 2 Fautum erat 2 Cursum erat 2 Ventum erat 2 

FuT.Pugnabitur, Favebitur, Curretur, Venietur, 

F. P. Pugnatum erit, 3 Fautum erit 3 Cursum erit. 3 Ventum erit. 3 

Sub. PRE.Pugnetur, Faveatur, Curratur, Veniatur, 

Imp. Pugnaretur, Faveretur, Curreretur, Veniretur, 
Per. Pugnatum sit, 3 Fautum sit, 3 Cursumsit, 3 Ventum sit, 3 
Plu. Pugnatum esset 4 Fautum esset 4 Cursum esset 4 Ventum esset 4 

Inf. Pre. Pugnari, Faveri, Curri, Veniri, 

Per. Pugnatum esse 5 Fautum esse 5 Cursum esse 5 Ventum esse, 6 
Fut. Pugnatum iri. Fautum iri. Cursum iri. Ventum iri. 



1 or fuit. 2 or fuerat. 3 or fuent. 4 or fuisset. 5 or fuisse. 



I 85. IMPERSONAL VERBS 181 

4, Grammarians reckon only ten real imper:onal verbs, and 
all in the second conjugation; namely, 

Decet, decuit, &c. it becomes, it became, &c. 
Zibet, libuit, or libitum est, &c. it pleases, it pleased, &c. 
Zicet, licuit, or licitum est, &c. it is lawful, it was lawful, &c. 
Mise'ret, mise'ruii, or miseritum est, &c. it pities, it pitied, &c. 
Oportet, oportuit, &c. it behooves, it was incumbent on, &c. 
Piget, piguit, or pigitum est, &c. it grieves, it grieved, &c. 
Poenitet, poenituit, &c. it repents, it repented, &c. 
Pudet, puduit, puditum est, &c. it shames, it shamed, &c. 
Tcedet, tceduit, or tcesum est, &c. it wearies, it wearied, &c. 
Ziquet, it appears. This verb has no perfect. 
But many other verbs are used impersonally in all the con- 
jugations. 

5. Under impersonal verbs may be comprehended those 
which express the operations or appearances of nature ; as, 
fulgurat, it lightens 5 ftdminat, tonat, it thunders ; grandi- 
nat, it hails 5 so gelat, plait, ningit, luces cit, advesp eras cit, &c. 

6. Impersonal verbs are applied to any person or number, 
by putting that which stands before other verbs as their no- 
minative, after the impersonals in the case which they gov- 
ern 5 as, 

Placet mihi, it pleases me, or I please. 

Placet tibi, it pleasesthee, or thou pleasest. 

Placet illi, it pleases him, or he pleases. 

Placet nobis, it pleases us, or we please. 

Placet vobis, it pleases you, or you please. 

Placet illis, i: pleases them, or they please. 

So pugnatur a me, a te, ab illo, &c. It is fought by me, 
by thee, by him 5 that is, I light, thou fightest, he fights ; 
&c. Hence, as the meaning of the active verb may be ex- 
pressed, either by the active or passive voice, so when a 
Latin neuter verb is translated by a verb considered active 
in English, (§ 38. Obs. 5.) the English passive form of that 
verb is expressed in Latin, by the passive used impersonal- 
ly ; thus, Active, faveo tibi, " I favour you ;" Passively, fa- 
vetur tibi a me, " you are favoured by me," and so of others. 

7. Impersonal verbs, not being used in the imperative take 
the subjunctive in its stead ; as, delect et, " let it delight." In 
the passive voice their participles are used only in the neu- 
ter gender. The gerunds and supines are but seldom u*? A 

16 



182 OF IMPERSONAL VERBS. § 86 

§ 86. EXERCISES ON IMPERSONALS. 

[For the meaning of the impersonals used in the following 
exercises, see No. 2. 3. 4. of the preceding section.] 

1. Give the designation, the place found, the translation ; 
thus, delect at. A verb impersonal 1st conjugation ; found in 
the present Indicative active ; " it delights." 

Delectabit, deeebat, decebit, deceret, contingit, continget, 
contigit, contigerit, evenit, evenit, eveniet, eveniat, pugna- 
batur, pugnatum est, pugnetur, pugnaretur, favetur, fautum 
sit, fautum fuerit, ventum est, ventum erit ; — libet, libuit, 
licitum est, miseret, miser ltum est, piget, pudet, fulgiirat, 
tonat, &c. 

2. Give the designation, &c. as in No. 1, and translate as 
the ivord folloioing the impersonal requires according to 
§ 85. 6. Thus, delectat me. Delectat, a verb impersonal, 1st 
conj. Pres. Ind. Act. " it delights me," or " I delight." 

Delectabit me, te, ilium, nos, vos, illos, — decet vos, dece- 
ret vos, placet tibi, favetur vobis, favebitur nobis, (a te, by 
you,) pugnabitur ab illis, venitur a te, ventum est ab illis, a 
vobis, a nobis, ab illo, a te, a me ; piget me, licet mihi, lice- 
bit vobis, licitum est illis, miseret me, miseruit te, &c. 

3. Render the following English into Latin, by the imper- 
sonals; thus, I delight, delectat me, literally, " it delights 
me." N. B. The noun or pronoun, after miseret, poenitet, 
pudet, tcedet, piget, decet, delectat, and oportet, must be put 
in the accusative, § 113. Exc. II. & III. Other impersonals 
are followed by the dative of the object when they have one; 
and when they express any thing done by another, the agent 
or doer when expressed is put in the ablative preceded by a 
or ab, as in § 85. 6. 

Exercises. — It becomes, it has repented, it is fought, it 
pleases, it is favoured 5 it becomes me, I repent, (it repents 
me,) I fight, (it is fought by me,) you are favoured, (it is 
favoured to you,) you are favoured by me, I repented, they 
have repented, you will repent, they are favored by us, by 
you, by me, &c. We are favored by them, by you ; they 
come, (it is come by them,) they have come, we will come, 
we run, we will run, if (si,) you please, if they please, it 
was allowed to us, we were allowed, it delights us, or we 
are delighted, they are delighted, it thunders, it lightens, it 
hailed, &c. 



§ 87, 88 REDUNDANT AND DERIVATIVE VERBS. 183 

§ 87. REDUNDANT VERBS. 

Redundant Verbs are those which have more than one 
form of the same part, or which have different forms to ex- 
press the same sense $ as, assentio and assentior, to assent ; 
fabrico or fabricor, to frame $ mereo and mereor, to deserve ; 
Edis, and es, " thou eatest;" edit and est, " he eats 5" from 
edo, &c. 

Redundant verbs in Latin are chiefly those which are 
used in different conjugations ; for example, 

1. Some are usually of the first conjugation, and sometimes 
of the third ; as, lavo, lavare, and lavo, lavere, to wash. 

2. Some are usually of the second conjugation, and some- 
times of the third 5 as, 

Ferveo ? fervere, and fervo,fervere, to boil. 
Fulgeo,fulgere, and fulgo ; fulgere, to shine* 
Strideojstridere, and strido,stridere, to creak, &c. 

3. Some are commonly of the third conjugation, and some- 
times of the fourth ; as, 

Fodio,fodere, and fodio,fodTre, to dig. 
SallojSallere, and sallio,sallire, to salt, &c. 

4. Cieo, cure is commonly of the second conjugation, but 
sometimes it is do, tire in the fourth, " to stir up." 



§ 88. DERIVATIVE VERBS. 
Verbs are derived either from nouns or from other verbs. 

I. Verbs derived from nouns are called Denominatives; 
as, coeno, to sup ; laudo, to praise ; fraudo, to defraud 5 
lapido, to throw stones 5 operor, to work, &c. from coena, 
laus, fraus, lapis, &c. 

But when they express imitation or resemblance they are 
called Imitatives; as, patrisco, Grcecor, bubulo, cornicor, &c. 
I imitate or resemble my father, a Grecian, an owl, a crow \ 
from pater, Grcecus, bubo, comix. 

II. Verbs derived from other verbs are chiefly the follow- 
ing$ viz. 



184 OF DERIVATIVE VERBS. § 88 

1. Frequent atives. These express frequency of action 
and are all of the first conjugation. They are formed from 
the last supine, by changing ata into ito, in the verbs of the 
first conjugation, and u into o in verbs of the other three con- 
jugations ) thus, 

Last. Sup. . Freq. 

1st, Clamo, to cry ; clamatu, hence clamito, to cry frequently, 

2d, Terreo, to frighten; terrltu, " terrlto, to frighten often. 
3d, Verto, to turn; versu, " verso, to turn frequently. 

4th, Dormio, to sleep; dormitu, " dormlto, to sleep often. 

In like manner deponent verbs form frequentatives in or, 
as minor i to threaten; of which in the active voice, the latter 
supine would be minatu, and hence minitor, to threaten fre- 
quently, ever and anon. 

Obs. 1. Some frequentatives are formed in an irregular 
manner ; as, nato, from no; noscito from nosco; scitor or 
rather scistitor from scio ; pavito, from paveo ; sector, from 
sequor ; loquitor, from loquor. So qucerito, fundito, agito 7 
fliato, &c. which formed regularly would be qucesito fuso, 
acto,fluxo, &c. 

Obs. 2. From frequentative verbs are also formed other 
frequentatives; as, curro, air so, airsito; pello, pulso, pidsi- 
to, or by contraction pulto; capio, capto, capttto ; cano, canto, 
cantito; defendo, defe?iso : defenszto;dlco, dicto, dictito, &c. 

Obs. 3. Frequentatives do not always express frequency 
of action. Many of them have much the same sense with 
their primitives, or express the meaning with greater force. 

2. Inceptive Verbs. These mark the beginning or con- 
tinued increase of an action or state. They are formed by 
adding -co to the second person singular, of the present indi- 
cative 5 thus, 

1st Conj. Labo, labas, Inceptive, labasco. 

2d " Caleo, cales, " calesco. 

3d " Tremo, tremis, " tremisco. 

4th " Obdormio, obdormis, " obdormisco. 

Note. — But all verbs in -sco are not inceptives. Inceptives are al- 
so formed from substantives and adjectives ; as, puerasco, from 
puer ; dulcesco, from dulcis ; juvenesco, from juvenis. 

Obs. 4. All inceptives are neuter verbs, and of the third 
conjugation. They properly w r ant both the preterite and 



§ 89 OF ADVERBS. 185 

supine, unless very rarely when they borrow them from 
their primitives. 

3. Disiderative Verbs, are those which signify a de- 
sire or intention of doing a thing. They are formed from 
the latter supine by adding -rio, and shortening u ; as, coend- 
turio^ "I desire to sup," from coeno, last supine, coenatu. 
They are all of the fourth conjugation, and want both prete- 
rite and supine, except these three ; viz. esurio, esicrtre, 
esurlvi, esuritum, to desire to eat ; parturio, parturire, par- 
turlvi, — to be in travail, and nupturio, nupturire, nupturivi, 
— to desire to be married. 

4. Diminutives, which represent an action as little or 
insignificant. They are formed from the present by chang- 
ing o, eo, and io, into -illo, and they are all of the first con- 
jugation j as, canto, cantillo, conscribo, conscribillo, sorbeo, 
sorbillo. 

5. Some verbs in -SSO are called Intensive ; as, capesso, 
facesso? petesso, or petisso, I take, I do, I seek earnestly. 



§ 89. OF ADVERBS. 

An Adverb is a word joined to a verb, an ad- 
jective, or another adverb, to modify or denote some 
circumstance respecting it. 

Adverbs may be considered in respect of Signi- 
fication, Derivation, and Comparison. 

I. THE SIGNIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 

In respect of signification, adverbs may be ar- 
ranged in Latin under the following heads : 

1. Adverbs of Place, comprehending tbose which signify, 

1st. Motion or Rest in a place -, as, ubi, where j hie, here ; illic, 

there ; intus, within ; /oris, without ; ubique, every where, &c. 
2d. Motion to a place ; as, quo ? whither ; hue, hither ; illuc, 

isthuc, thither ; to, to that place ; alio, to another place, &c. 
3d. Motion from a place ; as, unde, whence ; hinc, hence ; illinc, 

inde, thence ; superne, from above, &c. 
4th. Motion through or by a place; as, qua ? which way? hdc, this 

way ; alia, another way, &c. 

16* 



186 OF ADVERBS. § 89 

2. Adverbs of Time j as, nunc, now ; hodie, to-day ; turn, then ; 
nuper, lately ; mox, by and by -, semper, always, &c. 

3. Adverbs of Quantity j as, parum, little ; multum, much ; pene, 
almost ; quanta, how much, &c. 

4. Adverbs of Quality ; as, bene, well ; male, ill ,• fortiter, 
bravely, and many others derived from adjectives and participles. 

5. Adverbs of Manner, (viz. of action or condition,) including 
those which express exhortation, affirmation, negation, granting, for* 
bidding, interrogation, doubt, contingency , &c. as, profecto, truly j 
non, hand, not ; cur ? why ? quare, wherefore, &c. 

6. Adverbs of Relation, or such as express circumstances of com* 
parison, resemblance, order, assemblage, separation, &c. as, potius, 
rather ; ita, sic, so ; simul, together; seorsum, apart, &c. 

II. DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION OF ADVERBS. 

The Simple and Primitive adverbs are but few 
in number ; as, non, not ; ibi, there ; mox, present- 
ly; tunc, then, &c. 

The Derivative Adverbs are numerous, and are 
formed in the following manner : 

1. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the First and Second De- 
clension generally end in e ; as, alte, highly ; from altus ; lib&re, 
freely, from liber. Sometimes they end in o, urn, or ter; as tuto, 
safely, from tutus ; tantum, so much, from tantus; dure and durlter, 
hardly, from durus. 

2. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the Third Declension gene- 
rally end in -ter ; as, felicUer, happily, from felix. Sometimes e; 
as, facile, easily, from facilis ; and one ends in o, namely, omnino, 
altogether, from omnis. 

The Neuter gender of adjectives is often used adverbially -, as, 
recens, recently, for recent er ; torva, sternly for torve; as, dulce ri* 
dens, sweetly smiling, &c. 

3. Adverbs derived from nouns, generally end in im or itus ; as, 
virltim, man by man, from vir ; funditus, from the ground, from 
fundus. 

Many adverbs in Am, however are derived from participles ,• as, 
sensim, by degrees, from sensus, (sentio, I perceive.) A few in -itus 
are derived from adjectives ; as, antiqultus, from antlquus, &c. 



§ 89 OF ADVERBS. 187 

4. Adverbs are formed by composition in various ways; two or 
more words forming a phrase or part of a sentence, and syntactically 
combined, being formed into one word ; as, hodie, to-day, from hoc die ; 
scilicet, truly, from scire licet ; quomodo, how, from quomodo ; quam* 
obrem, wherefore, from quam ob rem, &c. 

Obs. 1. The adverb is not an essential part of speech. It only 
serves to express in one word what would otherwise have required 
two or more ,• as, sapienter, wisely ; for cum sapientia ; semper, al- 
ways, for in omni tempore, &c. Indeed similar phrases used to express 
circumstances of time, place, manner, order, and the like, constitute 
what may be called adverbial phrases, or clauses, though the words 
of which they consist, are to be parsed separately, and combined ac- 
cording to the rules of syntax. 

Obs. 2. Some adverbs of time, place and order, are frequently 
used, the one for the other ; as, ubi, where or when : inde, from that 
place, from that time, after that, next ; hacUnus, hitherto, thus far, 
applied indifferently to place, time, or order. 

Obs. 3. Some adverbs of time apply indifferently to the past, the 
present, or the future ; as, jam, already, now, by and by ; olim, long 
ago, sometime hereafter. Some adverbs of place are equally va- 
rious in their use ; as, esse peregre, to be abroad ,• Ire peregre, to go 
abroad, redlre peregre, to return from abroad. 

III. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

Adverbs derived from adjectives are generally 
compared like their primitives. The positive com- 
monly ends in -e, -o, or -ter ; the comparative in 
-ius; and the superlative in -ime; as, 

Positive. Comp. Super. 

Alte, highly; altius, altisslme. 

For titer, bravely; fortius, fortissime. 

Acrlter, sharply ; acrius, acerrlme. 

Liber e, freely ; liberius, liberrime.- 

Tuto, safely - } tutius, tutissime. 

The following adverbs are compared irregularly, like the adjectives 
from which they are derived -, viz. 

Bene 3 weZZ; melius, optime. 

Facile, easily ; facilius facillime. 

Male, badly; pejus, pesslme. 

Multum, much; plus, plurlmum. 

Parum, little; minus J ZlZm. 

Prope near; propius, proxime. 



188 OF PREPOSITIONS. § 90 

Positive wanting. 

Magis, more, maxime; ocius, more swiftly, occissime ; prius, soon* 
er, primoj or primum ; potius, rather, potisslmum. 

Comparative wanting. 

Pene, almost, penisslme; nuper, lately, nuperrhne ; nove ; or novi« 
ter, newly, novisslme ; merito, deservedly, meritissime. 

Superlative wanting. 

Satis, enough, satius ; secus, otherwise, secius. 

Two Adverbs not derived from adjectives are also compared ; 
namely, diu, long, diutius, diutisslme; and saepe, often, ssepius, 
saepissime. 



§ 90. OF PREPOSITIONS. 

A Preposition is an indeclinable part of speech, 
which points out the relation of one thing to an- 
other, and always governs a certain case. 

The preposition, as its name imports, stands before the noun or pro- 
noun which it governs, and shews the relation between it and some 
preceding word. — In Latin ; 

Twenty-eight Prepositions govern the Accusative ; viz. 

Ad, to, at, towards. Inter, between, among, during. 

Apud, at, near, with. Intra, zoithin. 

Ante, before, (of time, place Juxta, near, beside. 

or rank.) Ob, for, on account of, before,. 

Adversus, ) . . . a ^ enes 5 i ?l the poioer of. 

Adversum,) ° ' ' Per. through, during, ly. 

Circa, ) 7 , . Pone, behind. 

^. ' > around, about. -p , 7 7 . , /.. 

Circum, ) ' Jrost, behind, after, since. 

Circiter, about, (of time in- Praeter, besides, (passing by,) 

definitely.) beyond, besides, except. 

Cis, ) .... .7 ..j. , Propter, near, on account of. 



^. ' > on this side, without. G ^ j 7 7- J . 

Litra, ) ' secundum, along, accor dm gto 

Contra, against, opposite. Supra, above. 

Erga, towards. Trans, across, over, beyond. 

Extra, beyond, out of. Ultra, beyond. 

Infra, beneath. 



§ 90 OF PREPOSITIONS. 189 

Fifteen Prepositions govern the Ablative, viz. 

Ab, I from, by, after, &c. Ex, j out °f> f rdm > a f ter > ^ 
Abs, ) Palam, before, with the Jcnow~ 

Absque, without. ledge of. 

Clam,without the knowledge of Pras, before, in comparison 
Coram, before, in presence of. with, on account of 

Cum, with. Pro, before, for, according to. 

De, concerning, of over. Sine, without. 

Tenus, as far as, up to. 

Four Prepositions govern the Accusative or Ablative; viz. 

With the Accusative. With the Ablative. 

In, into, towards, against. In, upon, in, among. 
Sub, under, ( motion to,) about. Sub, under, (motion or rest,) 
Super, above, over, beyond. at, near. 

Subter, under. Super, upon, concerning. 

Subter, under. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. A is used before consonants ; ab before vowels, and h, j, r, s, and 
sometimes I; abs before t and qu. E is used before consonants. 

2. Tenus is placed after its case ; and also cum, when joined to me, 
te, se, quo, qui, and quibus ; as, mecum, &c. Clam sometimes go- 
verns the Accusative as clam patre, or palrem. 

3. The adverbs prope, nigh, usque , as far as ; versus, towards ; are 
Often followed by'an accusative governed by ad understood, and some- 
limes expressed. So also procul, far, is followed by the Ablative 
governed by a, understood. 

4. Prepositions not followed by their case are to be regarded as 
Adverbs. 

5. Prepositions are sometimes combined ; as, ex adversus eum lo- 
cum. Cic. In ante diem, " till the day." Cic. Ex ante diem, " from 
the day." But prepositions compounded together, commonly be- 
come adverbs or conjunctions ; a.s,propalam, protinus, insuper, &c. 

6. A Preposition with its case is often used as an adverbial 
phrase ; as, ex animo, " earnestly ;" ex adverso, " opposite ;" ex 
improviso, l< suddenly j" extempore, u off-hand." Quamobrem, (quam 
ob rem,) " wherefore j" quapropter (quce propter,) quocirca (quod 
circa, &c. 

7. Prepositions are either primitive ; as, ad, apud, ante, &c. or 
derivative ; as, adversum from the adjective adversus ; secundum, from 
secundus. They are either simple j as, ad, ante, abs • or compound ; 
as, ex adversum, absque. — Or inseparable j as, am, di or dis, &c, 
§91. 2. 



190 PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION. § 91 

§ 91. PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION. 

1 . Prepositions are often prefixed to other words 
especially to Verbs, the meaning of which they 
generally modify by their own; thus, 

1. A, ab, abs, from; as duco, "I lead," abduco, "I lead away," 
or " froni;" sometimes it denotes privation; as, amens, "mad." 

2. Ad, to; as, adduco, " I lead to." It is sometimes intensive; as, 
adamo, " I love greatly." 

3. Be, in composition, generally signifies " downward;" as, descen- 
do, " I go down;" decido, tl I fall down;" sometimes it is intensive; 
as, deamo, "I love greatly;" sometimes it denotes privation; as, 
despero, " I despair ;" demens, " mad." 

4. E or ex, out of; from ; as, exeo, " I go out ;" it is sometimes 
intensive ; as, exoro, " I beg earnestly." Sometimes privative; as 
exsanguis, u pale ;" exspes } " hopeless." 

5. In, into, in, against ; as, infero, " I bring in ;' irruo, " I rush;" 
against or upon. With adjectives it generally reverses the significa- 
tion ; as, infidus, " unfaithful;" indignus, " unworthy." In some 
compounds it has contrary significations, according as they are parti- 
ciples or adjectives: as, invocatus, " called upon," " not called upon ;" 
■immutatus, "changed," "unchanged;" impotens, means "weak," 
sometimes " powerful." 

6. Per, through, is commonly intensive, especially with adjectives ; 
as, perfacilis, " very easy ;" with quam, it is strongly intensive ; as, 
per quamfacilis, " exceedingly easy." In perfidus, " perfidious," it 
is negative. 

7. Prce, before, with adjectives is intensive ; as, praclarus, " very 
clear," " very renowned." 

8. Pro, denotes " forth," as produco, " Head forth." 

9. Sub. Often diminishes the signification; as, rideo, " I laugh ;" 
subrideo, " I smile ;" albus, " white ;" subalbus, " whitish." Some- 
times it denotes motion upwards ; as, subrigo, " I raise up ;" some- 
times concealment ; as, rapio, " I take ;" subripio, u I take secret- 
ly," "I steal." 

Note.— Prepositions frequently seem to add nothing to the words, 
with which they are compounded. 

Obs. 1. In combining with the simple word, some prepositions 
frequently undergo a change of form, chiefly for the sake of euphony 
for whieh see § 80. R. 5. 



§ 92 OP INTERJECTIONS. 191 

INSEPARABLE PREPOSITIONS. 

2. The following syllables, am, di, or dis, re, se, 
con, are called Inseparable Prepositions, because 
they are never found except in compound words. 
Their general signification is as follows : 

Am, about , around ; as Ambio, to surround. 

Di, or dis, asunder; " Divello, to pull asunder. 

Re, back, again ; " Relego, to read again, 

Se, apart or aside; " Sepono, to lay aside. 

Con, together; " Concresco, to grow together. 

Obs. 1. Some of these syllables in combining with the simple word 
sometimes vary their form, § 80. 5. and also further modify its signi- 
fication ; as, 

1st. Am adds to the verb the general idea of round, round about. 

2d. Dis, or di, sometimes reverses the meaning of the simple 

word; as, facilis, " easy ;" difficilis, "difficult;" fido, "I 

trust," diffldo, " I distrust;" sometimes it increases it; as, 

cupio, " I desire ;" discupio, " I desire much." 

3d. Re sometimes reverses the meaning of the simple word : as, 

claudo, " I shut ;" recludo. "I open." 
4th. Se has little variation of meaning. With adjectives it denotes 

privation ; as, securus, " free from care." 
5th. Con, (for cum,) conveys the idea of joint or combined action, 
and sometimes increases the meaning of the word with which 
it is compounded. 
Obs. 2. The syllables ne and veare also prefixed to words and have 
a negative signification; as, fas, "justice," nefas, "injustice;" 
"impiety;" scio, "I know," nescio, "I know not;" sanus, 
"healthy," vesanus, "sickly." 



§ 92. OF INTERJECTIONS. 

An Interjection is a word which expresses some 
emotion of the speaker ; as, Oh, hei, heu, ah, alas ! 

Nouns and adjectives in the neuter gender are sometimes used as 
interjections; as, pax! "be still;" malum, "with a mischief!" 
infandum, "O shame!" miserum, "O wretched!" nefas, Ci O the 
villany !" 

Note. — The same interjection is often used to express different 
emotions according to its connection; thus, vah } is used to express 
wonder, grief, joy, and anger. 



192 CONJUNCTIONS. § 93 

* 93. CONJUNCTIONS. 

A Conjunction is a word which joins words 
and sentences together; as, et, ac, atque, "and;" 
etiam, " also," &c. 

Conjunctions according to their different significations may- 
be divided into the following classes, 

1. Copulatives or such as connect things that are to be considered 
jointly ; as, ac, atque, et, que, and ; etiam 3 quoque, also ; and some- 
times the negative nee, neque, nor. 

2. Disjunctives, or such as connect things that are to be considered 
separately ; as, aut, sen, sive, ve, vel, either, or ; and the negative 
neve, neu, neither, nor. 

3. Concessives, or such as express a concession ; as, esti, estiamsi, 
tametsi, licet, quanquam, quamvis, though, although. 

4. Adversatives, or such as express condition ,• as, at, at qui, au- 
tem, cete'rum, verum, but j t amen, att amen, veruntdmen, yet, although ; 
vero, truly. 

5. Casuals, or such as express a cause or reason ; as, Znim, etZnim*. 
nam, namque, for ,• quando, quandoquidem, whereas, since ; quia, 
quippe, quod, because ; quoniam, quum, (or cum,) since, siquidem, if, 
indeed. 

6. Illatives, or such as express an inference ; as, ergo, idcirco, 
proinde, quapropter, quart, quamobrem, quocirca, therefore. 

7. Finals, or such as denote a purpose, object or result ; as, ne, 
lest j quin, but that ,• quominus, that not ; ut, uti, that. 

8. Conditionals, or such as express a condition -, as, si, sin, if j nisi 
or ni, unless; dummodo, or dum modo, provided that. 

9. Suspensives, or such as express doubt ; as, an anne, annon, ne, 
necne, num, utrum, whether, whether or not. 

Obs. 1. Some words, as, deinde, cc thereafter ;" denlque, " finally,'* 
Ccettrum, " but, moreover;" videlicet, " to wit ;" &c. may be considered 
either as adverbs or conjunctions, according as their modifying or 
connecting power prevails. 

Obs. 2. Autem, enim, vero, quoque, quidem, are never put first in a 
clause or sentence. Que, ve, ne, are always annexed to another 
word. They are called Enclitics, because when placed after a long 
syllable, they make the accent incline to that syllable ; as, disci, 
trochi ; descive trochive. 

Obs. 3. Conjunctions, like adverbs, are variously compounded 
with other parts of speech, and with each other j as, atque, idcirco, 
ideo, namque, &c. 



§ 94 95 OF SYNTAX. 193 



PART THIRD. 



§ 94. SYNTAX. 

Syntax is that part of Grammar, which treats 
of the proper arrangement and connection of 
words in a sentence. 

1. A sentence is such an assemblage of words as makes complete 
sense ; as, Man is mortal. 

2. A phrase is two or more words rightly put together, but not 
making complete sense ; as. In truth, in a word. 

3. Sentences are of two kinds, simple and compound. 

4. A simple sentence contains but one subject and one verb ; as, 
Life is short. 

5. A compound sentence contains two or more simple sentences 
combined; as, Life which is short, should be well employed. 

6. Every simple sentence consists of two parts, the subject and the 
predicate. 

7. The subject is the thing chiefly spoken of. It is either in the 
nominative case before a finite verb, or in the accusative before the 
infinitive. 

8. The predicate is the thing affirmed or denied of the subject. 
It is either contained in the verb itself; as, John reads ; or it consists 
of a neuter verb, with an adjective or noun following it ; as, Time is 
short ; they became poor ; he is a scholar 

9. Both the subject and predicate may be attended by other words 
called adjuncts, which serve to restrict or modify the meaning of the 
word with which they may stand connected ; as, An inordinate desire 
of admiration often produces a contemptible levity of deportment. 

10. When a compound sentence is so framed that the meaning is 
suspended till the whole be finished, it is called a period. 



§ 95. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SYNTAX. 

1. In every sentence there must be a verb in the indicative, subjunc- 
tive, imperative, or infinitive mood, and a subject expressed or un- 
derstood. 

2. Every adjective, adjective pronoun, or participle must have a 
substantive expressed or understood with which it agrees. § 98 and 146. 

17 



194 OF SYNTAX. § 95 

3. Every relative must have an antecedent or word to which it re- 
fers, and with which it agrees. § 99. 

4. Every nominative has its own verb expressed or understood, of 
which it is the subject. § 100, 101, 102. Or is placed after the sub- 
stantive verb in the predicate. § 103. 

5. Every finite verb; i. e. every verb in the indicative, subjunc- 
tive or imperative mood, has its own nominative, expressed or 
understood. § 101, 102. and when the infinitive has a subject it is in 
the accusative. § 145. The infinitive without a subject does not 
form a sentence or proposition. § 143. 

6. Every oblique case is governed by some word, expressed or un- 
derstood in the sentence of which it forms a part, according to the 
following 

SYNOPSIS OF THE GOVERNMENT OF CASES. 

7. The GENITIVE CASE is governed, 

1st. By substantives. § 106. Rules, VI. VII. and VIII. 

2d. By adjectives. § 107. Namely, verbals, &c. R. IX. — Partitives, 

R. X.— Of plenty or want, R. XI. 
3d. By verbs. § 108. Namely, Sum, R. XII.— MiserZor, &c. R. 

XIII.— Recorder, memini, &c. R. XIV.— Of accusing, &c. § 122. 

R. XXVIL— Of valuing, R. XXVIII.— Passive verbs. § 126. 

R. I. and II. — Impersonals. § 113. Exc. I. and II. 
4th. By adverbs. § 135, and, 
5th. It is used to express circumstances of place. § 130. R. XXXVI. 

and XXXIX. 

8. The DATIVE is governed, 
1st. By substantives. § 110. 

2d. By adjectives of profit or disprofit, &c. § 111. R. XVI 
3d. By verbs. § 112. Namely, Sum, audits compound. R. I. — Est. 
R. II, Certain compound verbs. R. III. and IV. — Verbs signi- 
fying to profit or hurt, he. R. V. Impersonals. § 113. — Verbs 
with two datives. § 114.— Verbs of comparing, &c. § 123.— 
Passive verbs. § 126. R. XXXII. and XXXIII.— Gerunds. § 147. 
4th. By adverbs. § 135.— Interjections, 117. 

9. The ACCUSATIVE is governed, 

1st. By verbs signifying actively. § 116. R. XX. — To which belong 
Recordor, memini, &c. § 108. Verbs governing two cases. § 122, 
namely of accusing, R. XXVIL— Valuing, R. XXVIII.— Com- 
paring, &c. § 123.— Asking and teaching, § 124.— Loading, 
binding, &c. § 125. — By impersonal verbs, § 113. Ex. II. and 
III.— By passive verbs, § 126. R. IV. 



§ 95 OF SYNTAX. 195 

2d. By prepositions, § 136. R. XLVJIL L. LL LII. 

3d. It is used to express circumstances of limitation, § 128. — of 

place, § 130.— Of time, § 131.— Of measure, § 132. 
4th. It is put before the infinitive as its subject. § 145. 

10. The VOCATIVE is governed by the interjections O, 
hm^ pro, &c. § 117. — Oris used without government to de- 
note the person addressed. 

11. The ABLATIVE i governed, 
1st. By nouns, § 118. 

2d. By adjectives, viz. of plenty or want, § 107. R. XI. — Dignus, 
indignus, &c. § 119.— The comparative degree, § 120. 

3d. By verbs, § 121. viz. of plenty and scarceness, R. XXV. — Utor 
abutor, &c. R. XXVI. — Loading, binding, &,c. § 125, — Passive 
verbs § 126. R. V. 

4th. By prepositions, § 136. R. XLIX. LI. LII. 

5th, It is used without a governing word to express circumstances, 
viz.— Of limitation, § 128. — Of cause manner, &c. § 129. — Of 
place, § 130. Namely, the place in which, R. XXXVI.— from 
which, R. XXXVIII. and XXXIX.— Of time, § 131. R. XL. 
and XLL— Of measure, § 132. R. XLII. XLIIL— Of price. 
§ 123. 

6th. It is used as the case absolute. § 146 

CONSTRUCTION OF MOODS, 

12. The Indicative and Imperative moods are independent 
and without government, 

13. The Subjunctive Mood is always dependent, and is 
used, 

1st. After certain conjunctions, § 140. 

2d. After the relative in certain connections, § 141, R. LV. 

3d. In oblique discourse, § 141. Rule L. 

14. The Infinitive Mood is used, 

1st. Without a subject, or as a verbal noun, § 144. and R. LVL 

LVII. 
2d. With a subject in dependent and subordinate clauses, § 145. 

15. Participles, Gerunds, and Supines are construed as ad- 
jectives and nouns, § 146. 147. 148. 

16. For the construction of adverbs and conjunctions, 
see § 134. 149. 



196 SYNTAX. THE SUBSTANTIVE. § 96 97 

$ 96. PARTS OF SYNTAX. 

The Parts of Syntax are commonly reckoned 
two, Concord or agreement, and Government. 

Concord is the agreement of one word with 
another, in gender, number, case, or person. 

Government is that power which one word has 
in determining the mood, tense, or case of another 
word. 

I. OF CONCORD. 

Concord or agreement is fourfold ; viz. 

1. Of a substantive with a substantive. 

2. Of an adjective with a substantive. 

3. Of a relative with its antecedent. 

4. Of a verb with its nominative or subject. 



§ 97. A SUBSTANTIVE WITH A SUBSTANTIVE. 
Rule I. Substantives denoting the same person 
or thing agree in case ; as, 

Cicero orator, Cicero the orator. 

Ciceronis oratoris, Of Cicero the orator ; &c. 

Urbs Athena, The city Athens. 

Urbi Athenis, To the city Athens. 

EXPLANATION.— Substantives thus used are said to be in apposition The 
second substantive is added to express some attribute, description, or appellative 
belonging to the first, and must always be in the same member of the sen- 
tence ; i. e. they must be both in the subject or both in the predicate. A sub- 
stantive predicated of another, though denoting the same thing, is not in ap- 
position with it , and does not come under this rule, § 103. 

This rule applies to all substantive words, such as personal and relative 
pronouns, adjectives used substantively, &c. 

Nouns in apposition are often connected in English, by such particles as 
os, being, for, like, &c. as, Pater mis it me comitem, u My father sent me as a 
companion," "/ora companion," &c. 

OBSERVATIONS. 
Obs. 1. It is not necessary that nouns in apposition agree in gen- 
der, number, or person. In these respects they are often different j 
as, Magnum pauperies opprobrium. Hor. Alexin delicias domini. 
Virg . 

06s. 2. Two or more nouns in the singular have a noun in apposi- 
tion in the plural; as, M. Antonius, C. Cassius,tribuni plebis, "Mar- 
cus Antonius, Caius Cassius, tribunes of the people." Also if the 



§ 98 SYNTAX. THE ADJECTIVE. 197 

singular nouns be of different genders, the plural in apposition will 
have the masculine rather than the feminine, if both forms exist ; as, 
Ad Ptolemceum et Cleopatram reges, (not reginas) legati missi. Liv. 

Obs. 3. The substantive pronoun having a word in apposition is 
frequently omitted j as, Consul dixi, (scil. ego,) " (I) the consul 
said." 

06.9. 4. The possessive pronoun being equivalent to the genitive of 
the personal, has a noun in apposition with it in the genitive ; as, 
Pectus tuum, hominissimplicis. 

Obs, 5. Sometimes the former noun denotes a whole, of which the 
noun in apposition expresses the parts ; as, Onerarise, pars ad JEgi- 
murum.—alidd adversus urbem ipsam delates sunt, u The ships of 
burden were carried, part to iEgimurus, — others against the city it- 
Self." So Quisque pro se quceruntur, tl They complain each for him- 
self." 

Obs. 6. A sentence or clause may supply the place of one of the 
substantives; as ; Cogltet orator em institui, rem arduam; (i Let him 
consider that an orator is training a difficult matter." 

Exceptions. 

Exc. 1. Sometimes the latter substantive is put in the genitive j as, 
Fons Timavi, " The fountain of Timavus ;" Amnis Eridani, " The 
river Eridanus ;" Arbor fici u the fig tree ;" Nomen Mercurii est mihi. 
Words thus construed may be referred to § 112. 

Exc. 2. A proper name after the generic term nomen, ox cognomen, 
sometimes elegantly takes the case of the person in the Dative j as, 
Nomen Arcturo est mihi, u I have the name Arcturus." Plaut. So, 
Cui nunc cognomen Iulo additur. Virg. Cut Egerio indltum nomen. 
Liv. Mansit Silviis postea omnibus cognomen. Liv. § 114. Obs. 5. 

Exc. 3. The name of a Town in the genitive, denoting at a place, 
may have a noun of the third declension or plural number, in appo- 
sition with it in the Ablative, and vice versa ; as, Corinthi Achaice 
urbe, u At Corinth a city of Achaia." This construction depends 
on the rules, § 130. 



§ 98, AN ADJECTIVE WITH A SUBSTANTIVE. 

Rule II. An adjective agrees with its substan- 
tive in gender, number, and case ; as, 

Bonus vir, a good man. Bonos viros, good men. 

Bona puella, a good girl. Bondrum legum, of good laws. 

Dulce pomum, a sweet apple. Tuis donis, with thy gifts. 

EXPLANATION.— This rule applies to all adjectives, adjective pronouns, and 
participles; and requires that they be in the same gender, number, and case 
with their substantives.— The word " substantive," in this rule, includes per» 
sonal and relative pronouns, and all words or phrases used as substantives, 

17* 



198 SYNTAX. THE ADJECTIVE. § 98 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs. 1. Two or more substantives singular, unless taken 
separately, have an adjective plural ; as, 

Vir et puer territi lupo, " A man and boy terrified by a wolf." 

Obs. 2. If all the substantives be of the same gender, the 
adjectives, will be of that gender, as in the above example. 
But if the substantives are of different genders, the adjective 
takes the masculine rather than the feminine, and the feminine 
rather than the neuter ; as, 
Pater mihi, et mater mortui sunt, My father and mother are dead. Ter. 

Obs. 3. But if they denote things without life, the adjective 
is commonly neuter. And if some of the substantives refer 
to things with life, and others to things without life, the ad- 
jective is either neuter, or takes the gender of the thing or 
things with life : as, 

Labor voluptasque sunt dissimilia nuturd, u Toil and pleasure are 

rnlike in nature." 
Naves et captivi qua ad Chium capta sunt. l( The ships and captives 

which were taken at Chios." 

Numidcc aique militaria signa obscurati sunt, (i The Numidians and 

their military standards were partially concealed." 

Obs. 4. Sometimes, however, the adjective agrees with the nearest 
noun, and is understood to the rest; as, sociis et rege recepto. Virg. 
u Our companions and king being recovered." 

Note 1. These observations may, and sometimes do hold good, even when one 
or more of the substantives are in the ablative, connected with the others by 
cum.; as, Filiam cumfilio accitos. 

Obs. 5. When the substantive to which the adjective or 
adjective pronoun belongs, may be easily supplied, it is fre- 
quently omitted, and the adjective assuming its gender, num- 
ber, and case, is often used as a substantive, and may have 
an adjective agreeing with it ; as, 

Mortalis, a mortal, (sc. homo.) Ille, he, (sc. homo.) 

Superi, the gods above, (sc. dii.) Illi, they, (sc. homines) 

Dextra, the right hand, (sc. manus.) Hie, he, (sc. homo). 
Sinistra, the left hand, (sc. manus) Hcsc she, (sc. femina,) 
Omnia alia, all other, (things,) F amiliaris meus , u my 

intimate friend." (sc. amicus.) 
Obs. 6. The adjective, especially when used as a predi- 
cate, without a substantive or definite object, is used in the 
neuter gender ; as, 

Triste lupus stabulis, The wolf is grievous to the folds. 

Vacare culpa est suave, To be free from blame is pleasant. 
Labor vincit omnia, Labor overcomes all obstacles. 



§ 98 SYNTAX THE ADJECTIVE. 199 

Obs. 7. Imperatives, infinitives, adverbs, clauses, and 
words considered merely as such, when used substantively, 
take an adjective in the neuter gender $ as, 

Supremum vale dixit. He pronounced a last farewell. 

Or as istud quando v£nit, When does that to-morrow come 1 

Excepto quod non simul esses, That you were not present, being ex- 
cepted. 

Obs, 8. A substantive is sometimes used as an adjective j as, po- 
pulism late r eg em (for regnantem,) " a people of extensive sway." 
Nemo miles Romanus, " No Roman Soldier. " Sometimes an ad- 
verb ; as, Heri semper lenitas, probably for lenitas semper existens, or 
the like. 

Obs. 9. These adjectives, primus, medius, ultimus, extremus, in- 
firms, Imus, summus, supremus, reliquus, cattra, usually signify 
the first part, the middle part, &c. of any thing, and are placed 
before the substantive ; as, media nox, " the middle of the night;" 
summus mons, c ( the top of the mountain." 

Obs. 10. Some adjectives denoting the time or circumstances of an 
action are used in the sense of adverbs ; as, prior venit, " he came 
first of the two f pronus cecidit, " he fell forward;" abiit sublimis, 
" he went on high." 

Obs. 11. Alius though an adjective is often used as a pronoun, and 
has this peculiarity of construction, that when repeated with a diffe- 
rent word in the same clause, it readers the one simple proposition 
to which it belongs equivalent to two, and it is to be so rendered ; 
thus, Aliud aliis videtur optimum, " One thing seems best£o one, and 
another seems best to another." So, Duo reges, alius alia via, ille 
bello, hie pace, civitatem auxerunt, " Two kings, one in one way and 
another in another, &c. Or the two simple sentences may be com- 
bined in a plural form, thus: u Different things seemed best to dif- 
ferent persons." — " Two kings, each in a different way," &c. The 
same is true when a word derived from alius, such as aliunde, aliter, 
alio, is put with it in the same clause ; as, Aliis aliunde periculum 
est, " There is danger to one person from one source, and to another 
from another,"— or combined, " There is danger to different persons 
from different sources." 

Obs. 12. When alius is repeated in a different clause, but in the same 
construction, the first is to be rendered " one," the second " another." 
If plural " some" — " others," as, aliud est maledicere, aliud accusare, 
"It is one thing to rail at, another to accuse." Cic. Proferebant alii 
purpuram, thus alii, "Some brought forth purple, others incense." 

This remark is applicable to alter, remembering only, that alius 
signifies one of many, alter, one of two ; as, Quorum alter exercu 
turn perdidit alter vendidit. 

Exceptions 

Exc. 1. An adjective is often put in a different gender or 
number from the substantive with which it is connected, 



200 SYNTAX THE RELATIVE. § 99 

tacitly referring to its meaning rather than to its form, or to 
some other word synonymous with it, or implied in it 5 as, 
Latium Capuaque agro mulctdti, l{ Latium and Capua were deprived 
of their land," i. e. the people of Latium, &c. Capita conjurationis 
virgis ccesi, — " the heads (i. e. the leading men) of the conspiracy," 
&c. 

Exc. 2. A collective noun in the singular, if its verb be 
plural, has an adjective in the plural, and in the gender of 
the individuals which form the collection 5 as, 

Pars in flumen acti sunt, " A part were forced into the river." 
Sometimes it takes the gender of the individual in the singular ,* as, 
pars arduus furit, &c. 

Exc. 3. A plural noun or pronoun used to denote one person, in 
comic writers, sometimes has an adjective or participle in the singu 
lar, as Nobis present e } " I being present." 

Exc. 4. The adjective pronouns, uterque, quisque, &c. in the singular, 
are often put with nouns in the plural, to intimate that the objects 
are spoken of individually and distributively ; as, Uterque eorum ex 
castris exercitum educunt, u Each of them leads his army from the 
camp." Quisque pro se queruntur, il They complain each one for 
himself." Alius and alter are sometimes used in the same way .; as, 
Mulia conjecta sunt aliud alio tempore. Obs. 11. In this construction 
there is a kind of apposition, § 97. Obs. 5. 



§ 99. THE RELATIVE AND ANTECEDENT. 

Rule III. The relative Qui, qua, quod, agrees 
with its antecedent in gender, number, and per- 
son; as, 

Ego quiscribo, I who write. 

Tu qui legis, Thou who readest. 

Vir qui loquitur, The man who speaks 

Viri qui loquuntur, The men who speak. 

EXPLANATION. — The antecedent is the noun or pronoun going before the rela- 
tive to which it refers. Sometimes, however, the relative atid its clause is 
placed before the antecedent and its clause. 

The infinitive mood or a part of a sentence is sometimes the antecedent, in 
which case the relative must be in the neuter gender. The case of the relative 
depends on the construction of the clause to which it belongs, (See Obs. 9.) 
and in this respect is to be considered as a noun. 

OBSERVATIONS. 
Obs. 1. Strictly speaking, the relative does not agree with 
the antecedent, but with the sajne word expressed or under- 
stood after the relative, and with which, like the adjective, 



§99 



SYNTAX. THE RELATIVE 201 



it agrees in gender, number and case, as well as person; 
thus, Diem dieunt, qua (die,) &c. They appoint a day on 
which (day,) &c. Hence in connecting the antecedent and 
relative clause, the following variety of usage occurs, viz : 

1st. The word to which the relative refers is commonly expressed 
in the antecedent clause, and not with the relative ; as, vir 
sapit qui pauca loquitur, u he is a wise man who speaks little." 

2d. Ifc is often not expressed in the antecedent clause, and expressed 
with the relative ; as, In quern primum egressi sunt locum, 
Troja vocdtur, i. e. locus in quern, &c. 

3d, Sometimes when greater precision is required, it is expressed 
in both j as, Erant omnlno itinera duo, quibus itinerlbus domo 
exire possent. 

Wi. When the reference is of a general nature, and there is no 
danger of obscurity, the word to which the relative refers is 
understood in both clauses ; as, Sunt quos juvat collegisse, i. e. 
sunt homines quos (homines) juvat, &c. Non habeo quod te 
accusem, i. e. non habeo id propter quod te accusem. 

Obs. 2. The antecedent is sometimes implied in a preceding word j 
as, omnes lauddrefortunas meas qui haberem, &c. u all were praising my 
fortune who had,' ? &c. i. e. fortunas mei qui, the possessive meas, 
being equivalent to the genitive of ego. § 30. Obs. 1. 

Obs. 3. When a relative refers to one or two nouns, denoting the 
same object, but of different genders, it may agree with either ; as, 
F 'lumen est Arar quod, &c. Here quod agrees with fiumen. Ad flu- 
men Ossum perventum est, qui, &c. Here qui agrees with Ossum. 

Obs. 4. So also when the relative stands between two nouns mean- 
ing the same thing, the one in the antecedent and the other in the re- 
lative clause, it may agree with either : as, Genus hominum, quod 
vocatur Helotes; Animal quern vocamus hominem. In the first sentence 
quod agrees with genus in the antecedent clause, in the second, quern 
agrees with hominem in the relative clause. 

Obs. 5. An adjective which properly belongs to the antecedent is 
sometimes placed in the relative clause, agreeing with the relative. 
This is the case, especially if the adjective be a numeral, a compa- 
rative, or superlative ; as, Inter jocos, quos inconditos jaciunt, for 
jocos inconditos, quos, &c. " Amidst the rude jests which they utter." 
Node, quam interris ultimamegit, for Node ultima, quam, &c. " The 
last night which he spent upon earth." 

Obs. 6. When a relative refers to two or more antecedents taken 
together, it agrees with them in gender and number, in all respects 
as the adjective does with different substantives, as stated, § 98. 
Obs. 1. 2. 3. 4. But, 

If the antecedents are of different persons, the relative plural takes 
the first person rather than the second, and the second rather than 
the third. 

Exc. 1. The relative sometimes takes the gender and number, not of 
the antecedent noun, but of some one synonymous with it or implied 
in it j as, Edrum rerum quce mortdles prima putant, u Of those things 



202 SYNTAX. THE RELATIVE. § 99 

which men deem most important. " Here qua seems to agree with 
negotia, considered synonymous with rerum. — Ddret ut catenis fatdle 
monstrum qua. The antecedent is monstrum, but qua agrees with 
Cleopatra, the monster intended. Conjuravere pauci contra rempub- 
licam, de qua (scil conjuratione, implied in conjuravere,) quam bre* 
vissime potero dicam. iC A few entered into a conspiracy against 
the republic, concerning which/' &c. 

Obs. 7. The relative quicunque and quivis, are sometimes used in- 
stead of qui, when a general or indefinite term is expressed or under- 
stood with the antecedent ; as, qua sanari pot£runt qudcunque ratione 
sanabo ; equivalent to omni ratione qudcunque (possum,) " What can 
be cured, I will cure by every means I can." 

This construction corresponds to that of the Greek otf<n£. Gr. 
Gram. § 135. 7. 

Obs. 8. "When the relative clause is connected with the antecedent, 
not by the relative itself but by some such connective as cum or 
quum, ubi, si, &c. signifying " when, /,; " if," &c. the relative assumes 
the character of a personal or demonstrative, with or without et 
prefixed : as, etille, et hie, et is, etilli, &c. and may generally be ren- 
dered by these pronouns ; as, qui quum legdtos non admitteret, u and 
when he would not admit the ambassadors ; J; qua ubi convenit, 
•'•' when it (sc. classis the fleet,) assembled. * ; Ad quorum milium 
silvarum quum Casar pervenisset, " When Caesar had come to the 
beginning of these woods. " Quam quum Romanbrum dux dare noU 
let, u And when the Roman general would not grant this, (sc. pacem, 
peace.) &c. 

CASE OF THE RELATIVE. 

Obs. 9. The relative in respect of case, is always to be 
considered as a noun, and if no nominative come between it 
and the verb, the relative shall be the nominative to the verb ; 
as, Ego, qui scribo, I who write. But, 

If a nominative come between the relative and the verb. 
the relative shall be of that case which the verb or noun fol- 
lowing, or the preposition going before, usually governs ; as, 

Deus quern coUmus, God whom we worship. 

Cujus muntre vivimus. By whose gift we live. 

A quo facta sunt omnia, By whom all things were made. 

Exc. 2. The relative after the manner of the Greek, is sometimes 
attracted into the case of its antecedent ,* as, cum agas aliquid eorum 
quorum consuesii 8cc. for eorum qvje consuhti. " When you do any of 
those things which you have been accustomed to do/' Raptim quibus 
quisque poitrat eldtis, for (Us) qu^: quisque, &c. Those things which 
each one could being hastily snatched up. 

Exc. 3. The antecedent is sometimes attracted into the case of 
the relative ; as. Urbem quam statuo vestra est, for urbs quam statuo, 
&c. ht The city which I am building is yours." 

These are Greek constructions seldom used bv Latin writers, See 
Greek Gr, § 135, Exc. 9. 10, 



§ 100 101 SYNTAX. NOMINATIVE CASE 203 

Obs. 10, The relative adjectives quot, quotus, quantus, quails, are 
often construed in a manner similar to the relative, having their red- 
ditives, or corresponding adjectives tot,totus,tantus, talis, expressed 
in the antecedent clause ; as, Fades qualem dccet esse sororum, i. e. 
talis fades, xl The features, such as usually belong to sisters." 
Tarda multitudinis quant am capit urbs, " Of as great a multitude as 
the city contains." 

"When the relative adjective and its redditive refer to different sub- 
stantives, each agrees with its own. But among the poets, the rela- 
tive sometimes agrees with the substantive in the antecedent clause, 
and not with that in its own. 

Sometimes the redditive is understood, and sometimes the relative. 



§ 100. CONSTRUCTION OF THE NOMINATIVE 

CASE. 

The Nominative case is used, 

1. To express the subject of a proposition. 

2. In apposition with another substantive in the nomina- 
tive (§87.) or predicated of it. § 103. 

3. In exclamations; as, O vir fortis atque Amicus I 



§ 101. THE VERB AND ITS NOMINATIVE. 

Rule IV. A Verb agrees with its nominative in 
number and person ; as, 

Ego lego, I read. Noslegimus, We read. 

Tu sci'ibis, Thou writest, Vos scribitis, Ye write. 

Ille loquitur, He speaks. Illi loquuntur, They speak. 

EXPLANATION— The nominative to a verb is the subject or thing spoken of in 
the sentence. It may be a noun, a pronoun, an adjective used as a noun, the 
infinitive, a gerund, or a part of a sentence. To all these this rule applies and 
requires that the verb should be in the same number and in the same person as 
the nominative. For person, see § 28. 06s. 1. 2. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs. 1. The nominatives Ego, tu, nos, vos, of the first and second 
person are generally omitted, being obvious from^he termination of 
the verb ; also, of the third person when it is an indefinite word, or 
may be easily supplied from the context ; &sferunt, they say, &c. 

Cbs. 2. The subject is also omitted when the verb expresses the 



204 SYNTAX. — THE NOMINATIVE. § 102 

state of the weather, or an operation of nature ; as, Fulgurat, it 
lightens; pluit, it rains ; ningit, it snows. 

Obs. 3. Impersonal verbs are usually considered as without a nomi- 
native. Still they will generally be found to bear a relation to some 
circumstance, sentence, clause of a sentence, or infinitive mood, simi- 
lar to that between a verb and its nominative ; as, delectatme studere; 
il it delights me to study," i. e. " to study delights me ; M misSret me 
tui, " I pity you f i, e. conditio, or fortuna tui mise'ret me, " your con- 
dition excites my pity. § 143. Obs. 1. 

05s. 4. The verb is sometimes omitted when the nominative is ex- 
pressed, and sometimes when it is understood ; - as, Nam ego Poly- 
dorus, (sc. sum,) " For I am Polydorus." Omnia praclara rara, 
(sc. sunt,) " All excellent things are rare." Tumille, (sc.respondit,) 
u Then he replied." Verum hactenus hcec, (sc. diximus.) 

Obs. 5. When the subject is an infinitive, or a clause of a sentence 
the verb is in the third person singular; and, if a compound tense, 
the participle is put in the neuter gender ; as, incertum est quamlonga 
nostrum cujusque vitafutura sit, " How long any of us shall live is un- 
certain." 

Obs. 6- The nominative is sometimes found with the infinitive, in 
which case capit or cceperunt, or some other verb according to the 
sense is understood ; as, Omnes invidere mihi, " Every one envied 
me." The infinitive with the nominative before it is so common in 
historical narrative that it is called the historical infinitive. Thus 
used, it is translated as the imperfect, for which tense it seems to be 
used. § 144. 065. 6. 

I 



§ 102. SPECIAL RULES AND OBSERVATIONS. 

I. Of agreement in number and person. 
Hule I. Two or more substantives singular, ta- 
ken together, have a verb in the plural : Taken 
separately, the verb is usually singular; as, 

Together, 
Furor iraque mentem prcecipitant , Fury and rage hurry on my mind. 

Separately, 
Si Socrates autd.ntisthe'nes dicer et, If Socrates orAntisthenes should say. 

Obs. 1. To both parts of this rule however, and especially to the first 
there are many exceptions. If one of the nominatives be plural, the 
verb is commonly plural. But sometimes the verb agrees with the 
nominative nearest it, and is understood to the rest, especially when 
each of the nominatives is preceded by et or turn, or they denote things 
without life ; as, Mens enim, et ratio, et consilium in senibus est. 

When the nominatives are disjunctively connected by aut, neque, 
&c. the verb is sometimes plural ; and it is always so when the 
substantives are of different persons ; as, neque ego, neque Ccesar 
habiti essemus. 



§103 



SYNTAX. THE NOMINATIVE. 205 



Obs. 2, A substantive in the nominative singular,coupled with another 
in the ablative by cum, may have a plural verb ; as, Memo cum fratre 
Quirinus jura dabunt. 

Obs. 3. When the nominatives are of different persons, the verb 
is commonly plural, and takes the first person rather than the second 
and the second rather than the third j as, Si lu et Tullia valetis, ego 
ei Cicero valemus, " If you and Tullia are well, Cicero and I are 
well." 

But sometimes the verb agrees with the nearest nominative, and is 
understood to the rest, and always so when the verb has different 
modifications with each nominative j as, ego miser 'e, tu f elicit er 
vivis. 

Rule II. A collective noun expressing many 
as one whole has a verb in the singular ; as, 

Populus me sibilat. The people hiss at me. 

Senatus in curiam venit, The Senate came into the Senate-house. 

But when it expresses many as individuals, the 
verb must be plural ; as, 

Pars epulis onerant mensas, Part load the tables with food. 

Turba ruunt, The crowd rush. 

Veniunt leve vulgus euntque, The fickle populace come and go. 

Obs. 4. To both parts of this rule there are also exceptions, and in 
some cases it seems indifferent whether the verb be in the singular or 
plural, sometimes both are joined with the same word ; as, Turba ex 
eo loco dilabebdtur, refracturosque carcerem mindbantur. 

Obs. 5. Uterque, quisque, pars. .. .pars, alius ,.... alius , and al- 
ter. . ..alter, on account of the idea of plurality involved, frequent- 
ly have the verb in the plural. This construction may be exp'ainel 
on the principle mentioned, § 98. Exc. 3. where see examples. 



§ 103. OF THE NOMINATIVE AFTER THE VERB. 

Rule V. Any verb may have the same case 
after it as before it, when both words refer to the 
same thing; as, 

Ego sum discipulus, I am a scholar. 

Tu vocdris Joannes, Thou art called John. 

Ilia incedit reglnd, She walks (as) a queen. 

EXPLANATION :— Under this rule the nominative before the verb is the sub' 
ject or thing spoken of, the nominative after it is the predicate or the thing as- 
serted of the subject. The verb is the copula connecting the one with the other 
and is usually a substantive or neuter verb, a passive verb of naming, judging, 
appointing, &c. 

This rule applies to the accusative and dative before and after the infinitive 
of the above verbs. See Obs. 5. 6. 7. 8. 

18 



206 SYNTAX. — -THE NOMINATIVE. § 103 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs. 1. Any of the above verbs between two nominatives of different 
numbers, commonly agrees in number with the former or subject j 
as, Dos est decern talcnta, ' Her dowry is ten talents." Ter. Omnia 
pontus erant, lt All was sea." Ovid. But sometimes with the" latter 
or predicate ; as, Amantium irce., amoris integratio est," The quarrels 
of lover's is a renewal of love." 

So also when the nouns are of different genders, an adjective, adjec- 
tive pronoun, or a participle in the predicate, commonly agrees with 
the subject of the verb ; as, oppidum appellatum est Possidonia : — But 
sometimes with the predicate ; as Non omnis error stultitia dicenda 
est. Cic. 

Obs. 2. When the predicate is an adjective, adjective pronoun, or 
participle without a substantive, it agrees with the subject before the 
verb according to Rule II. § 98. Except as noticed in the same sec- 
tion, Obs. 6. 

Obs. 3. When the subject is of the second person, and the vocative 
stands before the verb, the adjective or participle will usually be in 
the nominative, according to the rule; as, esto, tu, Ccesar amicus ; but 
sometimes it is put in the vocative ; as, Quibus Hector ab oris ex- 
pectdte vends. — Virg. for expectatus. Hence the phrase, Made vir- 
tute esto, for mactus. 

Obs. 4. The noun opus commonly rendered " needful," is often used 
as a predicate after sum ; as, Dux nobis opus est, " A leader is wanted 
by us." 

Note. — Such expressions as Audivi hocpuer ; — Rempublicam defendi 
adolescens, — Sapiens nil facit invltus, belong more properly to Rule 
I. and II. than to this. 

Obs. 5. The accusative or dative before the infinitive under this 
Rule, requires the same case after it in the predicate ; as, 

Novimus te esse fortem, We know that thou art brave. 

Mihi negligenti non esse licet, I am not allowed to be negligent. 

Obs. 6. When the subject of the infinitive is the same with the sub- 
ject of the preceding verb, it is often omitted, in which case the pre- 
dicate after the infinitive is in the nominative agreeing with the pre- 
ceding subject, or in the Accusative agreeing with the subject of the 
infinitive understood ; as, Cupio dici doctus, or cupio dici doctum ; 
i. e. me dici doctum, u I desire to be called learned." The first of 
these is a Greek construction, and seldom used by prose writers. 
See Gr. Gram. § 175. 3. 

Obs. 7. When the infinitive of such verbs has a dative before it, it 
may be followed either by a dative or an accusative : as, Licet mihi 
esse becito ; or, licet mihi esse bedtum, u I may be happy." In the 
first case beato agrees with mihi ; in the second, beatum agrees with 
me. to be supplied as the subject of esse. Sometimes when the sen- 
tence is indefinite, the dative also is understood ; as, licet esse beatum, 
(sc. alicui.) u One may be happy." The first of these forms also is 
a Greek construction. See Gr. Gram. § 175. Obs. 5. 

Obs. 8. This variety of case after the infinitive is admissible only 
with the nominative, dative, and accusative. The other cases before 
the infinitive have the accusative after it, agreeing with the subject 
of the infinitive understood ; as, interest omnium (se) esse bonos 



§ 104-5-6 SYNTAX.— -OF GOVERNMENT, 207 

§ 104, OF GOVERNMENT 

1. Government is the power which one word has over another de- 
pending upon it, requiring it to be put in a certain case, mood, or tense, 

2. The words subject to government are nouns and verbs. 

3. The words governing or affecting these in their case, mood or 
tense, are nouns, adjectives, pronouns, verbs, and words undeclinable. 

4. To the Syntax of nouns belongs all that part of Syntax relating 
to the government of Case. Every thing else in government belongs 
to the Syntax of the verb, § 137, et seq. 



SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. 

In this part of Grammar under the term noun or substantive, is 
comprehended every thing used in Latin Grammar as such, namely, 
nouns, personal pronouns, adjective pronouns used personally, ad- 
jectives without substantives, gerunds, together with infinitives, and 
substantive clauses used as nouns. 

The construction of the oblique cases depends in general upon 
the particular ideas expressed by the cases themselves as they are 
stated, § 7. 3. or hereafter mentioned under each case. 



$ 105. CONSTRUCTION OF THE GENITIVE. 

The Genitive, as its name imports, with the meaning of the word con- 
nects the idea of origin, and hence that of property or possession. It 
is used in general to limit the signification of another word, 
with which it is joined, by representing it as something originating 
with, possessed by, or relating to, that which the genitive or limiting 
word expresses ; and it is said to be governed by the word so limited, 
i. e. ; the word limited requires the word limiting it to be put in the 
Genitive case. 

The Genitive is governed by Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs j and 
also is used to express circumstances of place, quantity or degree. 



§ 106. THE GENITIVE GOVERNED BY NOUNS. 

Rule VI. One substantive governs another in 
the genitive, when the latter substantive limits the 
signification of the former ; as, 

Amor glories, The love of glory. 

Lex natures, The law of nature. 



208 SYNTAX. THE GENITIVE. § 106 

EXPLANATION.— Under this rule the two substantives must be of different 
signification, and the one used to restrict the meaning of the other. Thus in the 
first example Amor, alone, means H love" in general ; but the term gloria joined 
with it, restricts its meaning here to a particular object " glory, 7 ' and so of 
other examples. 

N. B. When a noun is limited by another of the same signification, it is put 
in the same case by Rule I. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs. 1. When the governing noun expresses a feeling or act, &c« 
inherent in, or exercised by the noun governed in the genitive, the 
genitive is said to be subjective or active. But when the governing 
noun denotes something of which the noun governed is the object, 
the genitive is then said to be objective or passive. Thus in the 
phrase Providentia Dei. the genitive is necessarily subjective or ac- 
tive, because providentia expresses an act or operation of which God 
is the subject, and of which he cannot be the object. On the other 
hand, in the phrase timor Dei, u the fear of God ;" the genitive Dei 
is necessarily objective or passive, because timor denotes a feeling in 
some other subject, of which God is the object, and cannot be the sub- 
ject. Sometimes the meaning of both substantives is such, that the 
genitive may be either active or passive ; thus, when the expression 
Amor Dei means the love which God has to us, Dei is active or sub- 
jective ; bus, when it means the love which we have to God, Dei is 
passive or objective. In such cases the sense in which the genitive is 
used must be determined by the author's meaning. 

Obs. 2. Hence it often happens that a noun governs two substan- 
tives, one of which limits it subjectively, and the other objectively; as, 
Agamemnonis belli gloria, "Agamemnon's glory in war," Nep. 
Here Agamemnonis limits gloria subjectively, and belli limits it- ob- 
jectively. So, Illius ad minist ratio provincice, Cic. 

Obs. 3. The governing noun is often omitted, but only, however, 
when the expression itself readily suggests the noun to be supplied; 
as, Ad Diana, sc. cedem; or when it can be readily supplied from the 
preceding or following words. 

Obs. 4. Instead of the genitive of the personal pronoun governed 
by the noun, it is more common to use the possessive adjective pro- 
noun agreeing with it; &s,meus pater, rather than pater mei. So also 
instead of the genitive of a noun, a possessive adjective is sometimes 
used,- as, Causa regia, for regis causa; Herilis filius, for filius heri. 

Obs. 5. The dative is often used instead of the genitive, to limit 
a noun as to its object; as,. Fratri cedes, for J rat r is, the house of my 
brother ; prcesidium reis, a defence to the accused. For this construc- 
tion see § 110. 

Rule VIL A substantive added to another to 
express a property or quality belonging to it, is 
put in the genitive or ablative ; as, 

Vir summce prudentice , or summd prudent id. A man of great wisdom. 
Puer probce indolis, or probd indole, A boy of a good disposition. 



$ 106 SYNTAX. THE GENITIVE. 209 

EXPLANATION.— Under this rule the latter substantive in the genitive or 
ablative must denote a part or property of the former, otherwise it does not 
belong to this rule. The latter substantive, also, has commonly an adjective 
joined with it, as in the above examples, though this is not essential to the rule 
and sometimes it is found without it; as, Homo nihili. 

Obs. 6. There is no certain rule by which to determine when the 
genitive is to be used, or when the ablative, though in some phrases 
we find the genitive only is used ; as, vir imisubsellii, " a person of 
the lowest rank;" homo nullius stipendii, " a man of no experi- 
ence in war," Sallust, Magni formica laboris, &c. In others the ab- 
lative only; as, Es bono animo, Be of good courage. Sometimes 
both are used in the same sentence; as, Adolescens eximid spe, sum- 
mm virtutis. In prose the ablative is more common than the geni- 
tive. 

Obs. 7. Sometimes, instead of the construction under this rule, the 
adjective is put with the former substantive; as, Vir gravitate et pru- 
dentid prmstans, Cic. So, Vir prcestantis ingenii, prcestanti ingenio, 
prmstans ingenio, and (poetically) prcestans ingenii, are all used. 
And sometimes, when the adjective takes the case of the former sub- 
stantive, the latter substantive, especially by the poets, is by a Greek 
construction put in the accusative, instead of the genitive or ablative; 
as, Miles fractus membra, instead of membris. Os humerosque simi- 
lis deo, instead of Ore humerisque sirnilis deo. The accusative, in 
this construction, may be regarded as governed by secundum, or quod 
attinet ad, meaning " according to," or u in respect of," &c. (§ 128. 
Exc. and Note.) and corresponding to the Greek xctra. See Gr. 
Gram. § 142, Obs 11. 

Adjectives taken as Substantives. 

Rule VIII. An adjective in the neuter gender 
without a substantive governs the genitive; as, 

Multum pecunice, Much money. 

Idnegotii, That business. 

EXPLANATION.— Under this rule, the adjective, without a substantive ex- 
pressed, is regarded as a substantive, and so capable of being limited by the geni- 
tive, as under Rule VI. 

Obs. 8. The adjectives thus used are generally such as signify 
quantity ; multum, plus, plurimum, tantum, quantum. The pronouns, 
hoc. id, illud, istud, quod, quid, with its compounds. Also summum.. 
ultimum, extremum, dimidium, medium, aliud, &c. To these may be 
added several neuter adjectives in the plural, used in a partitive 
sense ; as, angusta vidrum, the narrow parts of the road; opaca loco- 
rum; antiquafocderum; cuncta camporum, he. 

Note.— Such adjectives followed by a genitive are almost always either in the 
nominative or accusative. 

Obs. 9. Most of these adjectives may have their substantives with 
which they agree ; but the more common construction is with the 
genitive ; as, tantum spei, so much hope ; quid muliZris ? what kind 
of a woman? aliquid formce ; quid hoc rei est ? 

18* 



210 SYNTAX. — THE GENITIVE. § 107 

Obs. 10. Quod and quicquid followed by a genitive, include the idea 
of universality ; as, quod agri, u what of land," i. e. " all the land;' 7 
quicquid civium, u whatever of citizens," i. e. " all the citizens ; M 
quicquid deorum, " all the gods," 

Obs. 11. Opus and usus, signifying " need," sometimes govern the 
genitive j as, JLrgenti opus fuit, " there was need of money." — Liv. 
Procemii non semper usus est, u There is not always need of an intro- 
duction." Quinct. In general, these words govern the ablative. § 118. 
R. XXII. 



§ 107. GENITIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. 

Rule IX. Verbal adjectives, or such as imply 
an operation of mind, govern the genitive ; as, 

Avidus glories, Desirous of glory. 

Ignarus fraudis, Ignorant of fraud. 

Memor beneficidrum, Mindful of favors. 

EXPLANATION. — The genitive in this construction as in § 106. is used to 
limit the application of the general term or adjective by which it is governed, 
and may be rendered by of, or, m respect of prefixed; thus, in the first example, 
Avidus expresses the possession of desire generally; the genitive glorice limits 
it to a certain object, u glory, 77 and so of the other examples. 

OBSERVATIONS 

Obs. 1. Adjectives governing the genitive under this 
rule are, 

1st. Verbals in AX ; - as, capax, edax, ferax, fugax, pervicax, 

tenax, &c. 
2d. Participials in NS and TUS j as, amans, appUens, cupiens, 

patiens, impatiens, sitiens ; consultus, doctus, expertus, inex- 

pertus, insuetus, insolitus. &c. 
3d. Adjectives denoting various affections of the mind ; such as, 

1. Desire and Disgust, as, avarus, avidus, cupidus, studiosus; 
fastidiosus, &c. with many other verbals in -idus, and -osus. 

2. Knowledge and Ignorance : as, callidus, certus, conscius, 
gnarus, peritus, prudens, &c; — Ignarus, incertus, inscius, im- 
pruderis, imperitus, rudis, &c. 3. Memory or Forgetful- 
ness ; as, memor, immZmor, &c. 4. Care and Negligence ; 
as, anxius curiosus, solicitus, providus, diligens ; — incuriosus 
securus, negligens, &c. 5. Fear and Confidence ; as, pavi- 
dus, timidus, trepidus ; — impavidus, interritus, &c. 6. Guilt 
and Innocence ; as, noxius, reus } suspectus, compertus ; — in- 
noxius innocens, insons, &c. 



§ 107 SYNTAX. THE GENITIVE. 211 

4th, To these may be added many other adjectives of similar sig- 
nification, which are limited by, or govern such genitives ; as, 
animi, ingenii, mentis, irce, militia, belli, laboris, rerurtt, <evi, 
morum, a.ndfidei. 
Obs. 2. Verbals in NS are used both as adjectives and participles, 
but usually with some difference of meaning j as, patiens algoris, 
" capable of bearing cold f patiens algorem, " actually bearing cold;' 7 
amans virtutis, " loving virtue," — spoken of the disposition; amans 
viriutem, " loving virtue," — spoken of the act. So also, doctus 
grammatics , " skilled in grammar;" doctus grammaticam, a one who 
has studied grammar." 

Obs. 3. Many of these adjectives vary their construction 
so that instead of the genitive they sometimes take after them, 

1st. An infinitive clause ; as, certus ire, " determined to go." Ovid. 
Cant are periti. Virg. Anxius quid opus facto sit. Sail. 

2d. An accusative with a preposition • as, avidior ad rem; ani- 
mus capax ad prcecepta ; ad fraudem callidus; potens in res 
bellicosas, &c. 

3d. An. ablative with a preposition ; as, Avidus in pecuniis, 
li Eager in regard to money." Anxius defamd ; super sceUre 
suspectus; &c, 

4th. An ablative without a preposition ; as, Arte rudis, " Rude in 
art ;" regnicrimine insons ; prcestans ingenio. 

Obs. 4. Some adjectives usually governing the dative, sometimes 
govern the genitive, such as similis, dissimilis, &c. See § 111. Obs. 2. 

Rule X. Partitives and words placed partitive- 
ly, comparatives, superlatives, interrogates, and 
some numerals, govern the genitive plural; as, 

Aliquis philosophorum, Some one of the philosophers 

Senior fratrum, The elder of the brothers. 

Doctissimus Romanorum, The most learned of the Romans. 

Quis nostrum? Which of us? 

Una musdrum, One of the muses. 

Octavus sapientium, The eighth of the wise men. 

EXPLANATION.— A Partitive is a word which signifies a part of any num- 
ber of persons or things, in contradistinction to the whole. A word placed 
partitively, is one which though it does not signify a part, yet is sometimes 
used to distinguish apart from the whole; as, expediti militum, the light armed 
(of the) soldiers. The partitive, when an adjective, takes the gender of the 
whole and governs it in the genitive plural ; or, if a collective noun, in the geni- 
tive singular ; and in this case the partitive takes the gender of the noun under- 
stood ; as, doctissimus suce cetatis. 



212 SYNTAX. THE GENITIVE. § 107 

Obs. 5. Partitives are such words ; as, ullus, nullus, solus, alius, 
uter, uterque, neuter, alter, aliquis, quldam, quisquis, quicunque, quis ? 
qui? quot? tot, aliquot, nonnulli, plerlque,multi, pauci,medius, &c. 

Words are used partitively in such expressions as the following ; 
superi deorum, sancte deorum, degeneres canum, piscium femince. To 
which add, omnis, cunctus, nemo; as, Omnes Macedbnum ; nemo nos- 
trum. 

Obs. 6. The comparative with the genitive denotes one of two, the 
superlative denotes a part of a number greater than two; as, Major fra- 
trum, the elder of two brothers : maximus fratrum, the eldest of three 
or more. So also uter, alter and neuter generally refer to two, quis, 
alius, and nullus, to more than two ; as, uter nostrum, which of us 
(two?) quis nostrum, which of us (three or more ?) Nostrum and 
vestrum are used after partitives, seldom nostri and vestri. 

Obs. 7. The partitive is sometimes understood ; as, Fies nobilium 
tu quoque fontium, (sc. unus.) Hor. 

Obs. 8. Instead of the genitive after the partitive, the ablative is 
often found governed by de, e, ex, or in ; or the accusative with inter 
or ante ; as, unus e stoicis ; ante omnes pulcherrimus ; inter reges opu- 
lentissimus. 

Rule XL Adjectives of plenty or want govern 
the genitive or ablative ; as, 

PlenusircB or ird, Full of anger. 

Inops rationis, or ratione, Void of reason. 

EXPLANATION.— As in Rule IX. the adjective here is a general term, but 
limited in its application by the genitive or ablative following it. 

Obs. 9. Among adjectives denoting plenty or want, a considerable 
variety of construction is found. 

Some govern the genitive only ; as, benignus, exsors, impos, impo« 
tens, irritus, liberdlis, munificus, &c. 

Some govern the ablative only ; as, beatus, mutilus, tumidus, turgi- 
dus. 

Some govern the genitive more frequently ; as, compos, consors, 
egenus, exhceres, expers, fertilis, indigus, parcus, pauper, prodigus, 
sterilis, prosper, insatiatus, insatiabilis. 

Some govern the ablative more frequently ; as, abundans, alienus, 
cassus, extorris , firmus , foetus, frequens, gravis, gravidus, jejunus, 
infirmus, liber, locuples, Icetus, mactus, nudus, onustus, orbus, pol- 
lens, satidtus, tenuis, truncus, viduus. 

Some govern the genitive or ablative indifferently ; as, copiosus, 
dives, fecundus, ferax, immunis. indnis, inops, largus, modicus, im- 
modicus, nimius, opulentus, plenus, potens, purus, refertus, satur, 
vacuus, uber. 

Obs. 10. Many of these adjectives are sometimes limited by a pre- 
position and its case ; as, Locus copiosus a frumento. Cic. Ab onini 
reparatus. Id. Parcus in victu. Plin. In affectibus potentissimus? 
Quinct. Potens in res bellicas. Liv. &c. 



§108 



SYNTAX. THE GENITIVE. 213 



§ 108. THE GENITIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 
Rule XII. Sum governs the genitive of a per- 
son or thing to which any thing belongs as a pos- 
session, property, or duty; as, 

Est regis. It belongs to the king. 

Hominis est errdre, It is characteristic of man to err. 

EXPLANATION.— The genitive in this construction is supposedtobe governed 
by the substantive, officium, munus, res, negotium, opus, &c. understood. 
(When it is expressed, the genitive is governed by it according to Rule VI.) 
The verb is in the third person, — often has an infinitive or clause for its nomi- 
native, and may be rendered in any way by which the semse is expressed ; such 
as ; it belongs to, — is the property — the part — the duty — the peculiarity — the cha- 
racter of, &c. The following are examples, 

Jnsipientis est dicere non putdram, It is the part of a fool, &c. 
Militum est suo duci parere, It is the duty of soldiers, &c. 

Landare se vani est. It is the mark of a vain man, &c. 

So the following — JLrrogantis est neglige're quid de se quisque senti* 
at, Cic. Pecus est Melibozi. Virg. Hcec sunt hominis, Ter. Paupe- 
ris est numerdre pecus, Ov. Temeritas est florentis cetatis, prudentia 
senectutis, Cic. Antiqui moris fuit, Plin. 

Obs. 1. Sometimes the genitive may be governed by the preceding 
word repeated after est; as, Hoc pecus est (pecus) Meliboei; Hie liber 
est (liber) fratris. Sometimes the genitive depends on some other 
substantive understood; as, Quce res evertendce reipublicce solent esse 
(instrumenta.) Regium imperium quod initio conservandoz libertatis 
(causa,) et augendce reipublicce (institutum) fuerat. 

Obs. 2. Instead of the genitive of the personal pronouns, the nomina- 
tive neuter of the possessive is commonly used, agreeing with offici- 
um, munus &c. understood; as, Tuum est, it is your duty; instead of 
tui; meum est, it is my part ; instead of mei. 

Obs. 3. If the verb be in the infinitive, the posssessive pronoun 
must be in the accusative; as, Scio tuum esse, u I know it is your 
duty;" and if a substantive be expressed, the possessivemust agree 
with it in gender, number, and case; as, Hce partes fuerunt tuce 3 
(equivalent to tuum fuit, or tudrumpartium fuit.) It was your part. 

Rule XIII. Misereor, miser esco, and satago, go- 
vern the genitive ; as, 

Miserere civium tuorum, Pity your countrymen. 
Satagit rerum sudrum, He is busy with his own affairs. 

EXPLANATION .—The genitive, in this construction, has been supposed to 
be governed by such a noun as negotio, causa, re, &c. understood; governed by 
the prepositions de, a, in, or the like ; as, Miserere de causa civium, &c. We 
consider it better, however, to regard these genitives as governed directly by 
the verb, and expressing, as in Greek, the cause.or origin of the feeling which 
the verb expresses. See Gr. Gram. § 144. Rule XIV. 



214 SYNTAX. THE GENITIVE. § 109 

Obs. 4. Many other verbs denoting some affection of the mind are 
sometimes followed by a genitive, denoting that, with regard to which, 
or on account of which, the affection exists. These are ango, decipior, 
desipio, discrucior, fallo, fallor, fastidio, invideOj lector, miror, 
pendeo, studeo, vereor, &c. Thus, Absurde facis qui angas te animi. 
Plaut. Discrucior animi. Ter. Fallebar sermonis. Plaut. Lcetor 
malorum. Virg. These verbs have commonly a different construc- 
tion. Note 2. 

Note 1. — The first and second of these examples resemble the peculiar Greek 
construction, explained Gr. Gram. § 148. Obs. 2. 

Obs. 5. Several verbs especially among the poets, are found with 
the genitive in imitation of the Greek construction, Gr. Gram. §144. 
Rule XVI. and XVII. These are abstineo, desino, desisto, quiesco, 
regno ; also, adipiscor, condico, credo, frustror, furo, laudo, libtro, 
levo, participo, prohibeo ; thus, abstineto irdrum. Hor. Desine que- 
relarum. Hor. Regndvit populorum. Hor. Levas me laborum. Plaut. 

Note 2. — All these x r erbs, however, in Obs. 4 and 5, have for the most part a 
different construction, being followed sometimes by the accusative as an active 
verb, and more frequently by the accusative or ablative with a preposition. 

Rule XIV. Recordor, memini, reminiscor, and 
obliviscor, govern the genitive or accusative ; as, 

Recordor lectionis, or lectibnem, I remember the lesson. 

Obliviscor injurice, or injuriam, I forget an injury. 

EXPLANATION.— When these verbs are followed by an accusative, they are 
considered active, and fall under Rule XX. But when a genitive follows them 
they are regarded as neuter, and the genitive denotes that in regard to which 
the memory, &c. is exercised. 

Obs. 6. These verbs are often construed with an infinitive or some 
part of a sentence, instead of the genitive or accusative ; as, Memini 
videre virgfnem. Ter. 

Obs. 7. Recordor and memini, signifying to remember, are some- 
times followed by an ablative with de. And memini signifying to 
make mention of, has a genitive or an ablative with de. JEi venit in 
mentem, being equivalent to recordatur, has a genitive after it j as, 
Ei venit in mentem potest atis tuce. 

N. B. For the genitive with verbs of accusing, See § 122, 
with verbs of valuing, § 122. R. XXVII; with Passive 
verbs, §126; with Impersonal verbs, §113; with Adverbs, 
§ 135; denoting place, § 130, R. XXXVI and XXXIX. 



§ 109. CONSTRUCTION OF THE DATIVE. 

1. The Dative is used to express the remote object to which any 
quality or action, or any state or condition of things tends, or, to 
which they refer. This tendency is usually expressed in English by 
the words TO or FOR. Hence, 



§110-11 SYNTAX.— THE DATIVE. 215 

2. The Dative in Latin is governed by, or denotes the object referred 
to, by Nouns , Adjectives and Verbs. 

3. A use of the Dative common in Greek usually called the Da- 
tive Redundant, has also been imitated in Latin. See Gr. Gram. 
§ 145. 2. The following are examples. Quo tantum mihi dexter obis, 
Virg. Fur mihi es. Plaut. Tongilium mihi eduxit. Cic. Ubi nunc 
nobis det*s Me magister? Virg. Ecce tibi Sebosus. Cic. Suo sibi 
gladio hunc jugulo. 



§ 110. DATIVE GOVERNED BY SUBSTANTIVES. 

Rule XV. Substantives frequently govern the 
dative of their object ; as, 

Hostis virtutibus, An enemy to virtue. 

Exitium pecori, Destruction to the flock. 

Obtemperantia legibus, Obedience to the laws. 

EXPLANATION.— Under this rule, the governing substantive generally de- 
notes an affection, or some advantage, or disadvantage, or act, which is limited 
as to its object by the dative following it, as in the above examples. 

Obs. 1. Rule. The dative of the possessor is governed by- 
substantives denoting the thing possessed ; as, 

Ei venit in mentem, It came into his mind. 

Cui corpus porrigitur, Whose body is extended. 

Obs. 2. The dative in this construction is said to be used for, or in- 
stead of the genitive, as in Rule VI. There are but few instances, 
however, in which the genitive, under that rule could with propriety 
be changed for the dative. On the other hand, when the dative is 
used, the genitive would fail to express so precisely the idea intended. 
In this construction, the noun governing the dative is connected with 
a verb in such a way as clearly to show, that the dative is rather the 
object of that which is expressed by the verb and noun together, than 
under the government of the noun alone. Thus in the first example, 
ei, denotes the person to whom that which is expressed by venit in 
mentem^ occurred. So, corpus porrigitur, states what was done to 
the person represented by cui. The principle of this construction 
will be more manifest from what is stated, § 123. Exp. 



§111. THE DATIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. 
Rule XVI. Adjectives signifying profit or dis- 
profit, likeness or unlikeness govern the dative ; 
as, 

Utilis bello, Useful for war. 

Similis patri, Like his father. 



216 SYNTAX. THE DATIVE. § 111 

EXPLANATION.— The dative under this rule, like the genitive under Rule 
IX. is used to limit the meaning of the adjective to a particular object or end, 
to which the quality expressed by it is directed. Thus in the first example 
utilis means u useful 7 ' in a general sense, hello limits the usefulness intended 
to a particular object, "war." The dative thus used is rendered by its ordi- 
nary signs to or for, but sometimes by other prepositions or without a preposi- 
tion, as in the last example. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs. 1. To this rule belong adjectives signifying, 

1st. Profit, or disprofit ; as, benignus, bonus, commodus, felix ; — 

damnosus, dims, exitiosus, funestus, &c. 
2d. Pleasure, or pain ; as, Acceptus, dulcis, grdtus, jucundus, 

Icetus, suavis ; — Acerbus, amarus, ingratus, molestus, &c. 
3d. Friendship, or hatred ; as, Mquus^ amicus, blandus, cams, 

dedilus, fidus ; — adversus, asper, crudelis, infestus, &c. 
4th. Perspicuity, or obscurity ; as, apertus, certus, compertus, con- 

spicuus, notus ; — ambiguus, dubius, ignotus, obscurus, &c. 
5th. Propinquity ; as, finitlmus, propior, proximus, propinquus, 

socius, vicinus, affinis, &c. 
6th. Fitness, or unfitness ; as, Aptus, apposiius, habilis, idoneus, 

opportunus ; — ineptus, inhabiles, importunus, &.c. 
7th. Ease, or difficulty ; as, facilis, levis, obvius, pervius ; — dif- 
ficilis, arduus, gravis. Also those denoting propensity or 
readiness ; as, pronus, procllvis, propensus, &c. 
8th. Equality, or inequality; likeness, or unlikeness ; as, JEqudlis, 
cequcevus, par, compar ; — incequdlis, impar, dispar, discors ;— 
similis, cemiilus ; — dissimilis , alienus, &c. 
9th. Several adjectives compounded with CON ; as, cognatus, 

congruus, consonus, conveniens, continens, &c. 
10th. Verbal adjectives in -BILIS ; as, Amabllis, terribllis, opta m 

bills, and the like. 
Obs. 2. Exc. The following adjectives have sometimes the dative 
after them, and sometimes the genitive, viz: Affinis similis, commu- 
nis, par, proprius; finitlmus, fidus, contermlnus, superstes, conscius, 
cequalis, .contrarius, and adversus; as, similis tibi 3 or tui. 

Obs. 3. Adjectives signifying motion or tendency to a thing, take 
after them the accusative with ad, rather than the dative; as, procll- 
vus, pronus, propensus, velox, celer, tardus, piger, &c. thus; piger ad 
poenas. Ov. 

Obs. 4. Adjectives signifying usefulness or fitness, and the contrary, 
often take the accusative with ad; as, utilis ad nullum rem, good for 
nothing. 

Obs. 5. Propior and proximus take after them the dative, or the 
accusative governed by ad understood; as, Propius vero; proximus 
Pompeium, (sc. ad.) 

Conscius and some other adjectives, govern the dative according to 
this rule, and at the same time a genitive by rule IX; as, Mens sibi 
conscid recti, u a mind conscious to itself of rectitude." Virg. 



§ 112 SYNTAX. THE DATIVE. 217 

Obs. 6. Some adjectives that govern the dative, sometimes, instead 
of the dative, have an ablative with a preposition expressed or un- 
derstood; as, discors secum; alienum nostra amwitia. 

Obs. 7. Idem is sometimes followed by the dative, chiefly in the 
poets; as, Jupiter idem omnibus. Invitum qui servat, idemfacit occi- 
denti. In prose Idem is followed commonly by qui, ac, atque, ut, or 
quam. 



§ 112. THE DATIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS, 

Rule XVIL All verbs govern the dative of the 
object or end, to which the action, or state ex- 
pressed by them, is directed ; as, 

Finis venit imperio, An end has come to the empire. 
Animus redit hostibus, Courage returns to the enemy. [self. 

Tibi seris, tibi metis, You sow for yourself, you reap for your- 
EXPLANATION — This rule may be considered as general, applying to all 
cases in which a verb is followed by a dative. When the verb is active, it gov- 
erns its remote object in the dative, not as that upon which the action is exerted, 
but as that to which it is directed, while at the same time, it governs also its im- 
mediate object in the accusative, (§123.) If neuter, it will be followed by a dative 
only. 

This rule being applicable to all cases in which a dative follows a verb, is 
too general to be useful, as it could be applied correctly without much discri- 
mination. It will therefore be of more advantage, when it can be done, to 
apply the special rules comprehended under it as follows: 

SPECIAL RULES. 

Rule I. Sum and its compounds govern the da- 
tive, (except possum;) as, 

Prcefuit exercitui ) He commanded the army. 

JLdfuit precibus, He was present at prayers. 

Rule II. The verb Est, signifying to be, or to 
belong to, governs the dative of the possessor ; as, 

„ , ., . . ^ C 1. A father is to me, i. e. 

Est mihi pater, y I have a father. ' 

c . r . ... ( 1. Mellow apples are to us, i. e. 

Sunt nobis mitia poma, ^ % We have ^ ellow apples '. 

„ . t . _ $ 1. I know that apples are to us, i. e. 

Scio nohs esse poma, ^ % j knQW ftat ^^ appleg > 

EXPLANATION.— In this construction, the dative expresses the person or 
thing, to ox for which the subject spoken of, is, or exists. The verb will always 
be in the third person singular, or plural, in any tense, or in the infinitive. 
This very common Latin construction will be rendered correctly into English? 

19 



218 SYNTAX. THE DATIVE. § 112 

by the active verb, i{ have," instead of est, &c. of which the Latin dative be* 
comes the subject or nominative, and the Latin nominative the object, as is 
shewn in the above examples. 

Obs. 1. The dative is used in a similar manner after forem, supptto, 
desum and defit ; as, pauper non est cui rerum suppetit usus. He is 
not poor to whom the use of property is supplied, i. e. who has the use 
of property. Hor. So, Si mihi caudaforct. — Defuit ars vobis — Lac 

mihi non defit, &c. 

Rule III. Verbs compounded of satis, bene, and 
male govern the dative; as, 

Legibus satisfecit, He satisfied the laws, 

BenefacSre reipublica, To benefit the state. 

Obs. 2. These compounds are often written separately, and the 
dative is governed by the combined force of the two words. 

Rule IV. Many verbs compounded with these 
ten prepositions ad, ante, con, — in, inter, ob, — 
post, pr&, sub, and super govern the dative ; as, 

Annue cceptis, Favor our undertakings. 

Verbs governing the dative under this rule are such as the 
following 5 viz. 

1. Accedo, accresco, accumbo, acquiesco, adno, adnato, adequito } 
adkcereo, adsto, adstipulor, advolvor, affulgeo, allabor, allaboro, 
annuo, appareo, applaudo, appropinquo, arrideo, aspiro, assentior, 
assideo, assist o. assuesco, assurgo. 

2. Antecello, anteeo, antesto, anteverto. 

3. Colludo, concino, consbno, convivo. 

4. Incumbo, mdormio, indubito, inhio, ingemisco, inhcereo, insideo, 
insideor, insto, insisto, insudo, insulto, invigilo } illacrymo, illudo 1 
immineo, immorior, immtiror, impendeo. 

5. Intervenio, intermico, intercedo, intercido, interjaceo. 

6. Obrepo, oblucto, obtrecto, obstrepo, obmurmuro, occumbo, oc~ 
curro, occur so, obsto, obsisto, obvenio. 

7. Postfero, posthabeo, postpono, postputo } postscribo ; with an 
accusative. 

8. Prcecedo, prcecurro, prceeo, prcesideo, prceluceo, praniteo, pras- 
to, prcevaleo, prceverto. 

9. Succedo, succumbo, sufficio, suffragor, subcresco, suboleo, sub- 
jaeio, subrepo. 

10. .Supervenio, super curro, supersto. But most verbs compounded 
with s*uper govern the accusative. 

Obs. 3. Some verbs compounded with ab, de, ex, circum, and con- 
tra; also compounds of di and dis meaning generally Cl to differ/' 
are sometimes followed by the dative. These, however, chiefly fall 
under Rule XXXI. § 125. 

Obs. 4. Many verbs compounded with prepositions, instead of the 
dative, take the case of the preposition which is sometimes repeated. 



§ 112 SYNTAX. THE DATIVE. 219 

Some neuter verbs so compounded, either take the dative, or, acquir- 
ing an active signification by the force of the preposition, govern the 
accusative by Rule XX. as, Helvetii reliquos Gallos virtute prsecedunt, 
The Helvetii surpass the other Gauls in bravery. 

Rule V. Verbs govern the dative which signi- 
fy to profit or hurt ; — to favor or assist, and the 
contrary ;— to command and obey, to serve and 
resist; — -to threaten and to be angry; to trust. 

EXPLANATION.— Verbs governing the dative, under this and the preceding 
rule, are always neuter, or active verbs used in a neuter sense, and consequently 
it is applicable to the active voice only. The dative after passive verbs, does not 
come under these rules, but belongs to § 126. Itule XXXIII. 

Obs. 5. The verbs under this rule are such as the fol- 
lowing : 

1st. To profit or hurt; as, 
Proficio, prosum, placeo, commodo, prospicio, caveo, metuo, timeo, con* 
Mo, for prospicio. Likewise, Noceo, officio, incommbdo, displiceo, &c. 

2d. To favor or assist, and the contrary ; as, 

Faveo, gratulor, gratificor, grator, ignosco, indulgeo, parco, adH- 
lor, plaudo, blandior, lenocinor, palpor, assentor, subparasltor. Like- 
wise, Auxilior, adminiculor, subvenio, succurro, patrocinor, medeor, 
medicor, opitulor. Likewise, Derogo, detraho, invideo, cemulor. 

8d. To command and obey, to serve and resist ; as, 

Impero, prcccipio, mando ; mod^ror, for modum adhibeo. Likewise, 
Parco, ausculto, obedio, obsequor, obtZmpero, morem g$ro, morig&ror, 
obsecundo. Likewise, Famulor, servio, inservio, ministro, ancillor* 
Likewise, Repugno, obsto, rcluctor, renltor, resisto, refrdgor, adversor. 

4th. To threaten and to be angry ; as, 

Minor, commlnor, irascor, succcnseo. 

5th. To trust ; as, Fido, conftdo, credo, diffldo. 

To these add, Nubo, cxccllo, hcereo, supplico, cedo, despero, opZror, 
prcestolor, prcevaricor ; rccipio, to promise ; renuncio ; respondeo, to 
answer, or satisfy ,• tcmpZro, studeo ; vaco, to apply; convicior. 

Exc. Jubco, juvo, Icedo, and offendo, govern the accusative. 

Obs. 6. Many of these verbs, however, are variously construed, the 
same verb sometimes governing the dative according to this rule ; 
sometimes taken in an active sense they govern the accusative by 
rule XX. They are followed by an accusative with a preposition, 
and sometimes by an ablative with a preposition. Thus, Impende're 
alicui, or aliquem, or in aliquem, to hang over ; congruZrc alicui, 
cum aliqua re, inter se, to agree. 

Obs. 7. Many verbs when they vary their construction, vary their 
meaning also; as", Timeo tibi, de te, pro te, signifies, " I fear for you," 
i. e. for your safety ; but timeo te, means, " I fear you/' " I dread 



220 SYNTAX. — THE DATIVE. § 113 

you." Consulo tibi, is " I consult for you," i. e. " for your safety," 
consulo te, means " I consult you," "I ask your advice;" and so 
of others. 

Obs. 8. Verbs signifying motion or tendency to a thing instead of 
the dative have usually the preposition ad or in with the accusative ; 
as, Clamor it ad coelum ; seldom and chiefly with the poets, coelo. 



§ 113. DATIVE GOVERNED BY IMPERSONALS. 

Rule XVIII. An impersonal verb governs the 

dative; as, 

ExpZdit reipublicce, It is profitable for the state. 
EXPLANATION. — This rule applies to the dative governed by the passive of 
all those verbs which in the active voice govern the dative only, according to 
§ 112, Rules III. IV. and V. — the passive of all neuter verbs being used only im- 
personally, § 85. 3. Thus, Favetur mihi, "I am favored," not egofaveor. When 
the passives of such verbs are used personally, then the verb is to be consider- 
ed as used in an active sense, § 112. 06s. 6. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs. 1. These verbs Potest, coepit, incipit, desinit, debet and solet, 
before the infinitive of irnpersonals, become impersonal also j as, 
Non potest credi tibi } " You cannot be believed." 

Obs. 2. Some verbs are used both personally and impersonally ; as, 
doleo, " I grieve ;" dolet mihi, " It grieves me," i. e. "I grieve. " 
So also verbs commonly used impersonally sometimes have a subject 
in the nominative, and are of course used personally. This is the 
case especially with such nominatives as these, — Id, hoc, illud, quid, 
quod, nihil, &c. as, Nonne hcec te pudent ? ei Are you not ashamed of 
these things?" 

Obs. 3. An infinitive mood or part of a sentence is commonly join- 
ed to an impersonal verb, which in fact may be regarded as its sub- 
ject ; as, Delectat me studere, " It delights me to study," i. e. " study 
delights me." § 101. Obs. 3.— § 144. Obs. 1. 

Obs. 4. The dative after irnpersonals is sometimes understood; as? 
Faciat quod libet, (sc. sibi.) 

Exc. I. Refert and Interest govern the geni- 
tive ; as. 

Refert patris, It concerns my father. 

Interest omnium, It is the interest of all. 

But mea, tua, sua, nostra^ vestra, are put in the accusa- 
tive plural neuter ; as, 

Non mea refert, It does not concern me. 

Obs. 5. These pronouns must be considered as agreeing with such 
a substantive asnegotia; and that mea, for example, is equal to negotia 
mei. This then seems clearly to shew that such constructions as, 



I 113 SYNTAX. THE DATIVE. 221 

refert patris are elliptical, and that the word to be supplied is in the ac- 
cusative plural neuter ; thus, refert patris, (sc. ad negotia,) lit. it 
refers to the affairs of my father ; Interest omnium , i. e. est inter om- 
nium negotia, " it is among the affairs of all ;*' refert mea, i. e. ad 
mea negotia, equivalent to ad negotia mei. 

Obs. 6. Instead of the genitive, these verbs sometimes take the ac- 
cusative with a preposition ; as, refert ad me, for refert mea, i. e. mei. 
Sometimes they are used absolutely without a case expressed. 

Exc. II. These five Miseret, poenitet, pudet, 
t&det, and piget, govern the accusative of the im- 
mediate, with the genitive of the remote ob- 
ject; as, 

MisZret metui, I pity you. 

Poenitet me peccati, I repent of my sin. 

Tcedet me vitce, I am weary of life. 

Pudet me culpce, I am ashamed of my fault. 

EXPLANATION.— These examples may be rendered literally thus ; It grieves 
me on account of you, i. e. ergo, or causa tui. — It repents me of my sin. — It wearies 
me of life. — It shames me of my fault. For the method of rendering impersonal 
verbs in a personal form, as in the above examples, see § 85. 2. and 6. 

Obs. 7. The infinitive mood or part of a sentence may supply the 
the place of the genitive; as, poenitet me pecdsse, or quod pec cavSrim. 
After Miseret, it is sometimes supplied by the accusative governed by 
quod attinet ad, understood ; as, Menedemi vicem misSret me. i. e. quod 
atiinet ad vicem. Ter. The accusative is sometimes understood ; as, 
Scelerum si bene poenitet (scil. nos.) Hor. 

Obs. 8. The preterites of these verbs in the passive form, govern 
the same cases in the active ; as, Miseritum est me tuarum fortuna- 
rum. Ter. Miserescit, and miseretur are sometimes used imper- 
sonally ; as, Miserescit me tui. Ter. Miser eatur te fratrum ; Neque 
me tui, neque tuarum liberorum misereri potest. Cic. 

Exc. III. Decet, delectat, juvat, and oportet, 
govern the accusative of a person with the infini- 
tive; as, 

Delectat me studere, It delights me to study. 

Non decet te rixari, It does not become you to scold, 

Obs. 9. These verbs are sometimes used personally ; as, Parvum 
parva decent. Hor. Decet sometimes governs the dative; as. Ita no- 
bis decet. Ter. 

Obs. 10. Oportet, instead of the infinitive, elegantly takes the sub- 
junctive with ut, '' as," understood; as, Sibi quis que consul at oportet. 
Cic. When followed by the perfect participle, esse, or fuisse is under* 
stood, which being supplied, makes the perfect infinitive. 

Obs. 11. F allit , fugit , prcetZrit, latet when used impersonally, are 
construed with the accusative and infinitive; as, fugit me ad te scri- 
bere, Cic. 

19* 



222 SYNTAX. THE DATIVE. § 114 

§ 114. VERBS GOVERNING TWO DATIVES. 

Rule XIX. The verbs sum, do, habeo, and some 
others, with the dative of the object, govern also 
the dative of the end, or design; as, 

1. Est mihi voluptati, \ {) I s t0 * e for a Pleasure, i. e. 

t J i It is, or brings, a pleasure to me. 

2. Hoc misit mihi muneri, This he sent as a present to me. 

3. Ducitur honori tibi, \ {* » rei *oned to you for an honor, i.e. 

J ( It is reckoned an honor to you. 

EXPLANATION.— In these examples it is manifest that the words voluptati, 
honori, and muneri, each express the end or design for which the thing spoken 
of, or referred to, is, is reckoned, is sent to the object expressed by the other da- 
tives, mihi and tibi. See also 06s. 3. 

The verb sum, with the dative of the end, may be variously rendered accord- 
ing to the sense ; as, by the words, brings, affords, serves, &c. For, the sign 
of the dative, is often omitted, especially after sum. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs. 1. Verbs governing two datives under this rule, are chiefly, 
sum, fore, habeo, do, verto, relijnquo, tribuo, duco, and a few others. 

Obs. 2. Instead of the dative of the end, the nominative after est, 
&c. or the accusative, in apposition with the object of the preceding 
verb, expresses the same thing; as, Amor Est exiiium pecdri, for 
exitio; Se Achilli comitem esse datum dicii, for comiti. In the first ex- 
ample, exitium is the nominative after est, by Rule V. In the second, 
comitem is in apposition with se, by Rule I. 

Obs. 3. Neuter verbs, such as sum, fore, fio, eo, curro, proficiscor, 
venio, cedo, suppedito, are followed by two datives, as in the first ex- 
ample, transitive verbs in the active voice, besides the two datives, 
have an accusative expressed or understood by Rule XX. as in the 
second example; and in the passive voice two datives, as in the third 
example, the one by rule XXIX. and the other by this rule. 

Obs. 4. The dative of the object (commonly a person,) is often to 
be supplied; as, Est exemplo, indicio, prcesidio, usui, &tc. scil. mihi, 
alicuij hominibus, or some such word. So, pont're, oppongre pignti- 
ri, sc. alicui, "to pledge;" cane're receptui, sc. suis militibus, (t to 
sound a retreat;" habere curce, questui, odio, voluptati, studio, &c. sc. sibi. 

Obs. 5. To this rule is sometimes referred the forms of naming, 
so common in Latin; such as, Est mihi nomen JLlexandro; Qui cog- 
nomen lulo additur. The construction, § 97. Exc. 2, is much better. 

Obs. 6. From constructions under this rule, should be distinguished 
those in which the second dative may be governed by another noun 
in the dative, according to § 110. 

N. B. For the Dative with the Accusative, see $ 123. 
For the Dative after the Passive voice, see § 126. 
For the Dative after Particles, see § 135. Obs. 3. and 
R. XL VII.— After Hei and Vce, § 117. Obs. 3. 



§ 115-16 SYNTAX. THE ACCUSATIVE. 223 

§ 115, CONSTRUCTION OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 

1. The Accusative, in Latin, is used to express the immediate ob» 
ject of an active or transitive verb, — that on which its action is ex- 
erted, and which is affected by it. 

2. It is used to express the object to which something tends or re- 
lates, in which sense it is governed by a preposition, expressed or 
understood. When used to express the remote object of an active 
verb, or certain relations of measure, distance, time, and place, the 
preposition is usually omitted. 



§ 116. ACCUSATIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 

Rule XX. A verb signifying actively, governs 
the accusative ; as, 

Ama Deum, Love God. 

Reverere parentes, Reverence your parents. 

EXPLANATION.— 1. This rule applies to all verbs which have an accusative 
as their immediate object, viz: active verbs in the active voice, — deponent and 
common verbs in an active sense, and to neuter verbs followed by a noun of the 
same or similar signification, and to these in all their parts, moods, participles, 
gerunds, and supines. 

2. The accusative after the verb maybe any thing used substantively, wheth- 
er it be a noun, a pronoun, an infinitive mood, a clause of a sentence or a gerund. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs. 1. Rule. A neuter verb in an active sense, 
governs the accusative. 

Neuter verbs are regarded as active, and govern the accusative 
when the noun governed has a signification similar to their own; as, 
Ire iter, to go a journey,- pugnare pugnam to fight a battle; viv£re vi- 
tarn, to live a life, &c. In such cases, however, they are often fol- 
lowed by the ablative, with a preposition expressed or understood; 
as, Ire (in) itinere; gauderc (cum) gaudio, &c. 

Obs. 2. Verbs commonly neuter, are sometimes used in 
an active sense, and are therefore followed by an accusative 
under this rule ; thus, 

Active. Neuter. 

Abhor ere f amain, to dread-infamy. Abhorere a litibus, to be averse, Sec. 
Abolere mvnumenta, to abolish, &c. Memoria abolevit, memory failed. 
Declinare ictwn, to avoid a blow. Dedinare loco, to remove from, &c. 
Laborare arma, to forge arms. Laborare morbo, to be ill. 
Morari iter, to stop. Morari inurbe, to stay in the city, 



224 SYNTAX. — THE ACCUSATIVE. § 116 

Obs. 3. The Accusative after many neuter verbs depends on a pre- 
position understood • as, Morieniem nomine clamat ; Meas queror for* 
tunas; Num id la cry mat virgo ; Quicquid delirant reges, plectuntur 
Achivi ; Stygias juravimus undas, &c. In which and similar sen- 
tences the prepositions, ob, propter, circa, per, ad, in, &c. may be 
supplied. 

This construction of neuter verbs is most common with the neuter 
accusatives id, quid, aliquid, quicquid, nihil, idem, Mud, tantum, 
quantum, hoc, mult a, alia, pauca, &c. 

Obs. 4. The accusative after many verbs depends on a 
preposition with which they are compounded. This is the 
case, 

1st. Yv'ith neuter verbs j as, Gentes qua mare Mud adjacent, " the 
nations which border upon that sea ; ;; So, ineunt prcelium t 
adire provinciam, transcurrlre mare, alloquor te, &c. Thus 
compounded, many verbs seem to become active in sense, and 
so govern the accusative by this rule. In general, however, 
they fall under Rule LII. 

2d. "With active verbs, in which case two accusatives follow, one 
governed by the verb, and another by the preposition ; as. 
Omnem equitation pontem transducit, il He leads all the caval- 
ry over the bridge. *' Hellespoxtuzu copias trajecit. Here also 
the second accusative falls under Rule LII. 

Xote 1. — After most verbs, however, compounded with prepositions govern* 
ing the accusative, the preposition is repeated before it; as, Ccesarse ad 
neminem adjunxit. 

Obs. 5. The accusative after an active verb is sometimes under- 
stood ; as, Turn prora aver tit, sc, se ; flumina precipitant, scil. se; 
faciam viiuld, sc, sacra. 

Obs. 6. Rule, The infinitive mood or part of a sentence 
is often used as the object of an active verb, instead of the 
accusative * as. 

Da mihi fallere, Give me to deceive. 

Cupio me esse clement em, I desire to be gentle. 

Statuiruntut nave, conscenderent, \ Tl^detrafaB* ttat the> ' W ° Uld 

Xote 2. — In such constructions, the subject of the clause is sometimes by a 
Greek idiom put in the accusative, as the object of the verb; as, Xosti Mar' 
cellum, quim tardus sit; instead oi Xosti quam tardus Marcellus sit; So, Ilium 
ut vivat optant. instead of ut ills vivat optar.t; or ilium vivere optant. Gr. Gram. 
$ 150. Obs 4. 

Obs. 7. A few cases occur in which the accusative is put after a 
noun derived from a verb, or the verbal adjectives in -bundus ; as, 
Quid tibi hue receptio ad te est meum virum? Wherefore do you re- 
ceive my husband hither to you? Plaut. Quid tibi hanc aditio est. Id. 
Vitabundus castra. Liv. 

Obs. 8. Many verbs considered active in Latin, are used as neuter 
in English, and must have a preposition supplied in U*anslating ; as, 
Ut caviret me, " that he should beware of me." On the other hand, 
many neuter verbs in Latin, i. e. verbs which do not take an accusa- 



§117—18 SYNTAX.-— THE VOCATIVE. 225 

tive after them are rendered into English by active verbs ; as, For* 

tuna favet for tibus, <l fortune favors the brave." 

N. B. For the Accusative governed by Recordor, &c. see 
§ 108. R. XIV.— with another accusative, § 124. R. XXX.— 
governed by prepositions, § 136. R. XL VIII. L. LI. LII. — 
denoting time, § 131. R. XLI.— place, §130, R. XXXVIL— 
measure or distance, § 132. R, XLII. 



$ 117. CONSTRUCTION OF THE VOCATIVE. 

The Vocative is used to designate the person or thing addressed, 
but forms no part of the proposition with which it stands j and it is 
used either with, or without an interjection. 

Rule XXI. The interjections 0, heu and proh, 
are construed with the vocative ; as, 

O formose puer ! O fair boy ! 

Sometimes with the accusative ; as, Heu me miserum, (t Ah wretch 
that I am !" and sometimes with the nominative ; as, O virfortis atque 
amicus. 

Obs. 1. To these may be added other interjections of calling or ad- 
dressing ; as, ah , au, ehem, eheu, eho, eja, hem, heus, hui, io, ohe, and 
vah, which are often followed by the vocative : as, Heus Syre; Ohe 
lib ell e. 

Obs. 2. The vocative is sometimes omitted while a genitive depend- 
ing upon it remains ; as, miserce gentis, sc. homines. Lucan. 

Obs. 3. The interjection Hei and Vce, govern the dative ,* as, Hei 
mihi) lt Ah me !" Vie vobis, " Woe to you !" 



$ 118. CONSTRUCTION OF THE ABLATIVE. 

The ablative is used in Latin generally to express that from which 
something is separated or taken ; or, as that by, or with which some- 
thing is done, or exists. It is governed by nouns, adjectives, verbs 
and prepositions, and also is used to express various relations of mea» 
sure, distance, time, and place, &,c. 

THE ABLATIVE AFTER NOUNS, 

Rule XXII. Opus and Usus signifying need, re- 
quire the ablative; as, 

Est opus pecunid, There is need of money. 

Nunc usus viribus. Now there is need of strength. 



226 SYNTAX. THE ABLATIVE. § 119 

EXPLANATION.— The ablative after these nouns is probably governed by a 
preposition such as pro understood. In this sense they are used only with the 
verb sum, of which opus is sometimes the subject, and sometimes the predicate: 
Vsus, the subject only. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs. 1. Opus in the predicate, is commonly used as an indeclinable 
adjective, in which case it rarely has the ablative ; as, Dux nobis 
opus est, "We need a general." Cic. So, Dices nummos mihi opus esse. 
Cic. Nobis exempla opus sunt. Cic. In these examples opus, as an 
indeclinable adjective, agrees with "dux" u nummos," " exempla," 
by Rule II. This construction is most common with neuter adjec- 
tives and pronouns, and is always used with those denoting quantity ; 
as, q,uod non opus est, asse carum est. Cato apud Sen. 

Obs. 2. Opus and usus are often joined with the perfect participle j 
as, Opus maturato , " Need of haste j J; Opus consult o, u Need of de- 
liberation ;" Usus facto, "Need of action." The participle has some- 
times a substantive joined with it after opus ; as, Mihi opus fuit 
Kirtio convento, " It behoved me to meet with Hirtius. Cic. 
Sometimes the supine is joined with it j as, It a dicttj opus est. Ter. 

Obs. 3. Opus is often followed by the infinitive, or by the subjunc- 
tive with ut ; as, Siquid forte, quod opus sit sciri. Cic. Nunc tibi 
opus est, eegram ut te adsimiles. Plaut. Sometimes it is absolutely 
without a case, or with a case understood j as, Sic opus est ; Si opus 
est. 

Exc. Opus and usus, are sometimes followed by the genitive by 
Rule II.; as, Argenti opus fuit, " there was need of money ;" 
Sometimes by an accusative, in which case an infinitive is probably 
understood ; as Puero opus est cibum ; Scil. habere. Plaut. 



§ 119. ABLATIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. 

[For the Ablative governed by adjectives of plenty or want, see 
§ 107. Rule XI.] 

Rule XXIII. These adjectives dignus, indignus, 
contentus, praditus, captus, an&fretus, also the par- 
ticiples natus, satus, ortus, editas, and the like, 
denoting origin, govern the ablative ; as, 

Dignus honore, "Worthy of honor. 

Contentus parvo, Content with little. 

Prceditus virtute, Endued with virtue. 

Captus oculis, Blind. 

Fretus viribus, Trusting to his strength. 

Ortus regibus, Descended of kings. 

EXPLANATION.— The ablative after these adjectives and participles is go- 
verned by some preposition understood ; as, cum, de, c, ex, in, &c. Sometimes 
it is expressed ; as, Ortus ex concubina. Sallust. 



§ 120 



SYNTAX. THE ABLATIVE. 227 



Obs. 1. Instead of the ablative, these adjectives often take an in- 
finitive, or a subjunctive clause with qui or ut ) as, Dignus amari* 
Virg, Dignus qui imperet. Cic. Non sum dignus, ut figam palum in 
parietem. Plaut. 

Exc. Dignus, indignus, and contentus, are sometimes followed by 
the genitive ; as, Dignus avorum. Virg. For the ablative governed 
by adjectives of plenty or want, see § 107. Rule XI. 



§ 120. THE ABLATIVE WITH THE COMPARA- 
TIVE DEGREE. 

Rem. When two objects are compared by means of the compara- 
tive degree, a conjunction such as, quam, ac, at que, &c. signifying 
" than," is sometimes expressed and sometimes omitted. In the first 
the construction of the case falls under other rules ; in the second it 
falls under the following, viz. 

Rule XXIV. The comparative degree without 
a conjunction governs the ablative ; as 

Dulcior melle, Sweeter than honey. 

Prcestantior auro, More precious than gold. 

Perennius cere, More durable than brass. 

EXPLANATION.— The ablative under this verb is supposed to be governed 
more properly by prce understood, which is sometimes expressed; as, Unus 
pra ceteris fortior. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs. 1. Of these two modes of comparison, the ablative without a 
conjunction is commonly used when the object is compared with the 
subject of a proposition j as, Quidmagis est durum saxo, quid mollius 
undd. But when in such a comparison quam is used, the second sub- 
stantive will be in the same case with the first, because in the same 
construction ; as, Oratio quam habitus fuit miser abilior; Cic. i. e. 
Oratio fuit miser abilior quam habitus (fuit.) 

Obs. 2. When the object is compared with the predicate of a pro- 
position the conjunction, quam is commonly used, and then there are 
two cases. 

1st. If the same thing is predicated of both substantives, they will 
be in the same case, because they will fall under the same construc- 
tion ; as, Ego hominem callidiorem vidi neminem quam Phormionem ; 
i. e. quam (vidi,) Phormionem. 

2d. If the same thing is not predicated of both substantives, the 
latter will commonly be in the nominative with sum, expressed or un- 
derstood ; as, Meliorem quam ego sum, suppono tibi. Plaut. 

Obs. 3. Quam. is frequently understood after plus, minus, and am- 
plius, and sometimes after major, minor, and some other compara- 
tives without a change of case ; as, Capita plus (quam) quinque mil- 



228 SYNTAX. THE ABLATIVE. § 121 

lia hominwn, " More than five thousand men were taken." Obsides 
ne minor es (quam) octonum denum annorum. 

But quam is always expressed before the dative and vocative. 

Note.— These words are also followed by the ablative without quam accord- 
ing to the rule. 

Obs. 4. When the second member of a comparison is an infinitive 
mood, or a part of a sentence, quam is always expressed ; as, Nihil 
turpius est quam mentlri. 

Obs. 5. The comparative is often followed by the following nouns, 
adjectives, and participles in the ablative j viz. opinione, spe, expecta* 
tione,fide, — dicto, solito, — cequo, credibili, justo ; as, citius diet o turn- 
ida, cequora placat. Virg. These ablatives often supply the place of 
a clause j as, gravius cequo, equivalent to gravius quam cequum est. 

These ablatives are sometimes omitted j as, Liherius vivebat, sc. 
cequo, " he lived more freely than was proper ;' ; i. e. tl he lived too 
freely," or " rather freely." 

Obs. 6. When one quality is compared with another, in the same 
subject, the adjectives expressing them are both put in the positive 
degree with magis quam, or in the comparative connected by quam -, as, 
ars magis magna quam difficilis. Triumphus clarior quam gratior t 
u a triumph more famous than acceptable." 

Obs. 7. The prepositions prce, ante, prceter, and supra, are some* 
times used with a comparative ; as, sceUre ante alios immanior 
omnes. Also a superlative ; as, Ante alios carissimus. Pro is used 
after quam, to express proportion ; as, Prcelium atrocius quam pro 
nume'ro pugnantium. 

Obs. 8. Magis and minus joined to the positive degree, are equiva- 
lent to the comparative ; as, O luce magis delect a. Magis and plus 
joined with a comparative, only strengthen it j as, Nihil invenies 
magis hoc certius. 

Obs. 9. Inferior sometimes governs the dative ; as, vir nulla arte cui 
quam inferior; the ablative also is found, but it is usually followed by 
quam. 

Obs. 10. Alius is sometimes construed like comparatives and some- 
times, though rarely, is followed by the ablative -, as, non putes alium 
sapiente bonoque beatum. 



§ 121. ABLATIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 

Rule XXV. Verbs of plenty and scarceness^ 
for the most part govern the ablative ; as, 

Abundat divitiis, He abounds in riches. 

Caret omni culpa, He has no fault. 

EXPLANATION.— The ablative after such verbs, may be governed by a pre- 
position understood, sometimes it is expressed ; as, vacat a culpa. Or it may 
be used to limit the verb, by showing in what respect its meaning is to be ta- 
ken; as, li he abounds in respect of riches," (see Rule XXXIV.) Instances 
of this construction, however, are so common as to warrant the rule here given. 



§ 122 SYNTAX. — ACCUSATIVE AND GENITIVE. 229 

Obs. 1, Verbs of plenty are such as, Abundo, affluo, exubgro, re- 
dundo, suppedito, scaUo, &c. of want, Carlo , eg£o, indigZo , vaco } de- 
ficior, destituqr, &c. 

Exc. 1, J£g£o and indigZo, sometimes govern the genitive; as, Eget 
ceris, he needs money. Hor. Non tarn artis indigent, quam laboris, 
Cic. So, also, some verbs denoting to Jill, to abound, such as, abun- 
do j carlo, saiuro, scatSo. 

Rule XXVI. Tit or, abutor, fruor, fungor, potior, 
vescor, govern the ablative ; as, 

Utitur fraude, He uses deceit. 

Abutitur libris, He abuses books. 

Obs.2. To these add, gaudZo, creor, nascor,fido, vivo, victito, con* 
sto, laboro, ( u to be ill;") pascor, epulor, nitor, &c. 

Exc. 2 Potior often governs the genitive; as, Potiri urbis, To get 
possession of the city; Potiri rerum, (never rebus,) to possess the 
chief command. In such cases, the genitive may be governed by im- 
perio understood. 

Exc. 3. Potior, fungor, vescor, epulor and pascor , sometimes gov- 
ern the accusative; as, Potiri urbem. Cic. Officia fungi, &c. and al- 
so, in ancient writers utor, abutor, and fruor. Depasco and depascor 
have the accusative always. 

N. B. For the Ablative of the adjunct, see § 106. R. VII. 
— For the Ablative governed by adjectives of plenty, or 
want, § 107. Rule XI. — By verbs of loading, binding, &c. 
§ 125. — By passive verbs, § 126. Rule V. — -By a preposition, 
§ 136. R. XLIX. LI. LII. 

For the Ablative of Limitation, see -§ 128. — Of Cause, 
manner, &z. § 129. — Of the place where, § 130. Exc. — From 
tvhich, § 130. 3. — Of time when, § 131. R. XL. — How long, 
R. XLL— Of measure, § 132. R. XLIL— Of excess, R. XLIII. 
-^Of price, § 133.— In the case absolute., § 146. R. LX. 



§ 122. VERBS GOVERNING THE ACCUSATIVE 
AND GENITIVE. 

Many active verbs, together with the accusative of the direct ob- 
ject, govern also another word, to which the action has an indirect or 
remote reference, in the genitive, dative, accusative, or ablative, as 
the nature of that reference may require. All verbs under these 
rules are active or transitive verbs. 

Rule XXVII. Verbs of accusing, condemning, 
acquitting, and admonishing, govern the accusa- 

20 






230 SYNTAX. ACCUSATIVE AND GENITIVE. § 122 

tive of a person, with the genitive of a thing j 
as, 

Arguit mefurtij He accuses me of theft 

Meipsum inertice condemno, I condemn myself of laziness. 

Ilium homicidii absolvunt, They acquit him of manslaughter. 

Monet me officii, He admonishes me of my duty. 

To this rule belong verbs of, 

Accusing; as, Accuso, ago, appello, arcesso, anquiro, arguo, coar- 
guo, capto, increpo, increpito, urgeo, incuso, insimulo, interrogo, pos m 
tulOj alligo, astringo, defero, compello. 

Condemning; as, Damno, condemno, infamo, noto, convinco, pre- 
hendo, deprehendo, judico, plector. 

Acquitting : as, Absolvo, HbZro, purgo, and perhaps solvo. 

Admonishing : as, Moneo, admoneo, commoneo, commonefacio. 

Obs. 1. With many of these' verbs, instead of the genitive of the 
crime or punishment, the ablative is used with or without a preposi- 
tion ; as, Accusare de negligentid. Cic. Liberdre culpa. Id. The 
ablatives crimlne and nomine are often inserted before the genitive, 
which may be regarded as the full form of the construction ; as, Ar~ 
cesser 'e aliquem crimlne ambitus. Liv. Sometimes the punishment 
is put in the accusative after ad or in; as Damnare ad pcenam, in 
Tnetallum, rarely in the dative ; as, Damnatus morti. Multo has al- 
ways the ablative ; as, multare poind, pecunid, exsiliis, &c. 

Obs. 2. Accuso, incuso, insimiilo, together with verbs of ad- 
monishing, instead of the genitive, are followed by the accusative,. 
especially of the neuter pronouns, hoc, id, illud, quod, &c. and their 
plurals ; as, Si id me non accusas ; Plaut. Eos hoc moneo, Cic. rarely 
by the accusative of nouns ; as, Sic me insimuldre falsum f acinus. 
The accusative in. this case may be considered as governed by the 
preposition secundum, or quod attinet ad. 

Obs. 3. Many -verbs signifying to accuse, and among them some 
of the verbs enumerated under this rule, do not govern the genitive 
of the crime, but, as active verbs, govern it in the accusative by Rule 
XX ; as, Arguo culpam. Ejus avaritiam perfidiamque accusdrat. 
When thus construed, the immediate object of condemnation is the 
crime ; in the other construction it is the person. 

Obs. 4. Verbs of admonishing instead of the genitive are some- 
times followed by an infinitive or clause; as, Soror monet Succur- 
rere Lauso Turnum. Virg. Monet ut suspiciones vitet. Cses. Mo* 
net rationem frumenti esse habendam. Hirt. 

Rule XXVIII. Verbs of valuing with the ac- 
cusative govern such genitives as, magni, parvi, 
nihili, &c. ; as, 

JEstlmo te magni, I value you much, 

EXPLANATION.— These genitives are adjectives and properly agree with 
pretii, momenti, or some such noun understood, which, with the adjective in 
the genitive, may come under Rule VII. thus, Mstimo tehominem magni pretii, 



§ 123 SYNTAX. ACCUSATIVE AND DATIVE. 231 

" I esteem you a man of great worth." If this conjecture be right, it will ac- 
count for the ablative after the same verbs. See Obs. 6. 

Verbs of valuing are such as cestimo, existimo, duco, facio, hab%o % 
pendo, puto, taxo. 

Among the genitives governed by such verbs may be reckoned, t ant i, 
quanti.pluris, majdris, minoris, minimi, plurimi, maxlmi, nauci, pili, 
assis, teruncii, hujus, flocci. 

Obs. 5. JEqui and boni are put in the genitive after facio and con* 
sulo ; as, JEqui bonique facio, " I take this in good part j" hoc cow 
sulo boni. 

Obs. 6. JEstimo sometimes governs the ablative; as, JEstimo te 
magno, parvo, &c» After habZo, puto, duco, the ablative with pro is 
common ; as, Pro nihilo habZo. 

For tanti, quanti, pluris, minoris, denoting price, see § 133. Exc. 



§123. VERBS GOVERNING THE ACCUSATIVE AND 
DATIVE. 

Rule XXIX. Verbs of comparing, giving, de- 
claring, and taking away, govern the accusative 
and dative ; as, 

Comparo Virgilium Homero, I compare Virgil to Homer. 

Suum cuique tribuito, Give every man his own. 

Narras fabulam surdo, You tell a story to a deaf man. 

Eripuit m& morti, He rescued me from death. 

EXPLANATION.— This is a rule of very extensive application. When, to- 
gether with the thing done, (expressed by the active verb and its accusative,) 
we express also the remote object to which it is done, that object will be put in 
the dative ; thus, in the above examples, the verb and the accusative following 
it, express the whole of that which is represented as done to, or with reference 
to, the object expressed in the dative; i.e. Comparo Virgilium, expresses all 
here said to be done, (Homero,) to Homer, — I compare Virgil to him. Narras 
fabulam, expresses all here said to be done, (surdo,) to the deaf man, — you 
tell a story to him; and so Eripuit me, together, express what is here done, 
(morti) to death,— he rescued me from it ; and so of other examples. See this 
more fully illustrated, Gr. Gram. § 162. Obs. 3. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs. 1. Verbs of comparing and taking away, and some others, 
instead of the dative often take a preposition and its case j as, Com* 
par are unam rem cum alia, — ad aliam,—res inter se. Eripuit me morti , 
— morte, — a, or ex morte, &c 

Obs. 2. Instead of the accusative, these verbs have frequently an 
infinitive mood or a part of a sentence ; as, Da mihi fallere, Eeddes 
mihidulce loqui, &c. Hor. Perfacile factu esse illis probat ; Itemque 
Dumnorigi, ut idem conaretur persuadet. Cses. This construction is 
especially common with such verbs as, Aio, dico, inquam, persuadeo, 






232 SYNTAX. — TWO ACCUSATIVES. § 124 

respondeo, &c. when the thing said, replied, &c. though a sentence 
or a paragraph, is to be regarded as the accusative, and the person or 
persons to whom said is put in the dative. 

Obs. 3. Several verbs governing the accusative and dative are of- 
ten construed differently ; as, Circumdare mcenia oppido, or oppidum 
mcenibus, u to surround a city with walls. ,; Inter cludZre commeatum 
alicui, or aliquem comeatu, " to intercept one's provisions." InduZre, 
exuere vestem sibi, or, sevesti. So the following, Universos frumento 
donavit. Nep. and Prcedam militibus donat. Caes. Asperger e sale 
carries, or aspergere salem cornibus. Plin. 

Obs. 4. The accusative is sometimes understood; as, Nub Zre alicui 
(sc. se.) Cedere alicui (sc. locum,) detrahere alicui, (sc. laudemj &c. 

Obs. 5. Verbs signifying motion or tendency to a thing, instead of 
the dative, have an accusative after them with the prepositional; 

as, Ad prcetorem hominem traxit. 



§ 124. VERBS GOVERNING TWO ACCUSATIVES. 

Rule XXX. Verbs of asking, and teaching, go- 
vern two accusatives, the one of a person, and 
the other of a thing ; as, 

Poscimus te pacem, "We beg peace of thee. 

Docuit me grammaticam, He taught me grammar, 

EXPLANATION.— The first accusative under this rule belongs to Rule X3L 

the second may be governed by quod attinet ad, or secundum understood, mean* 

ing as to, in respect of. Or the reason of this rule may be, that most of the 

verbs under it, admit either of the nouns after them, as their immediate object. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs. 1. Verbs of asking, which govern two accusatives, are Rogo } 
oro, exoro, obsecro, precor, posco, reposco, flagito, &c. Of teaching, 
Docto, edoceo, dedoceo, erudio. To these may be added, celo, to con- 
ceal; as, Antigbnus iter omnes celat. Nep. 

Obs. 2. Verbs of asking, instead of the accusative of the person, 
often take the ablative with ab or ex; as, Veniam oremus ab ipso. 
So also, instead of the accusative of the thing, many verbs both of 
asking and teaching sometimes take the ablative with de; as, JDe itu 
litre hostium senatum edocet. Sail. Sic ego te eisdem de rebus interrbgem, 

Obs. 3. Some verbs of asking and teaching, are never followed by 
two accusatives, but by the ablative of the person, with a preposi- 
tion; such as, exigo, peto, queer o, scitor, sciscitor, and the following 
verbs of teaching, viz: imbuo, instituo, instruo, and some others, are 
followed by the ablative of the thing, sometimes with, and sometimes 
without a preposition; and sometimes they are otherwise construed. 

06s. 4. Many other active verbs, frequently besides the accusative 
of a person, take also an accusative of nihil, or of the neuter pro- 



§ 125-6 SYNTAX. ACCUSATIVE AND ABLATIVE. 233 

nouns, hoc, id, quid, or of adjectives of quantity; as, Fabius ca me 
monuit. Cic. Nee te id consulo. Id. These verbs, however, in their 
signification, generally resemble verbs under this rule,- or the accu- 
sative of the thing may be governed by a preposition understood 



§ 125. VERBS GOVERNING THE ACCUSATIVE 
AND ABLATIVE. 

Rule XXXI. Verbs of loading, binding, cloth- 
ing, depriving, and their contraries, govern the 
accusative and ablative ; as, 

Onerat naves auro. He loads the ships with gold. 

EXPLANATION.— The accusative under this rule belongs to Rule XX. The 
ablative may be governed by a preposition understood. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs. 1. Verbs of loading are Onlro, cumulo, premo, opprimo, ob. 
ruo, impUo, exptto, compUo. — Of unloading, levo, exonero, &c. — Of 
binding, astringo, ligo, alligo, devincio, impedio, irretio, illaquZo, &c. 
Of loosing, solvo, exsolvo, UbZro, laxo, expedio, &c. — Of depriving, 
privo, nudo, orbo, spolio,fraudo,emungo. — Of clothing, vestio amido, 
induo, cingo, tego, veto, corono. — Of unclothing, exuo, discingo, Stc. 

To these maybe added many other verbs, such as, muto, dono, mu- 
nero, remunSro, communico, pasco, beo, impertior, dignor, oficio, pro- 
sequor, assequor, spar go, oblecto, &c. with which, however, in many 
cases, the ablative may come under Rule XXXIV. and XXXV. 

Obs. 2. These verbs are sometimes followed by the ablative with a 
preposition expressed; as, Solvere aliquem ex catenis. Cic. The ab- 
lative is sometimes understood; as, complet naves, sc. viris. Virg. 

Obs. 3. Several of these verbs denoting to fill, likewise govern 
the genitive; as, Adolescentem sua temeritdtis implet, " He fills the 
youth with his own rashness." Some of them also vary their con- 
struction; as, induit or exuit se vestibus, or vestes sibi. Abdicate mq- 
gistratum. Sail. Abdicate se magistratu. Cic. See § 123. Qbs, 3. 



$ 126. CONSTRUCTION WITH PASSIVE VERBS. ; 

Rule XXXII. Verbs that govern two cases in 
the active voice, govern the latter of these in the 
passive; as, 

Accusor furti, I am accused of theft. 

Virgilius comparatur Homero, Virgil is compared to Homer. 

Doceor grammaticam, I am taught grammar. 

Navis onerdturauro, The ship is loaded with gold. 

20* 



234 SYNTAX. PASSIVE VERBS. § 126 

This rule may be subdivided into the five following, which will be 
much more convenient in practice, than the general Rule. 

Rule I. Verbs of accusing, condemning, &c. in the passive 
voice, govern the Genitive. 

Rule II. Verbs of valuing in the passive, govern such 
genitives as, magni, parvi, nihili, &c. 

Rule III. Verbs of comparing, giving, declaring and tak- 
ing away, &c. in the passive, govern the dative. 

Rule IV. Verbs of asking, and teaching, &c. in the pas- 
sive, govern the accusative. 

Rule V. Verbs of loading, binding, clothing, depriving, 
&c. in the passive, govern the ablative. 

EXPLANATION.— This rule applies to the passives of all verbs under Rules 
XXVH. to XXXI. inclusive. In all of these the "latter case" is that which 
with the active voice expresses the remote^ and never the immediate object of 
the verb. In all constructions under this rule it must be noticed that that which 
was, or would be the accusative after the verb in the active voice, must be its 
nominative in the passive, otherwise the construction does not belong to this 
rule. Thus, Active, Narras fabulam surdo. Passive, Narratur fabula surdo. 
Here u fabulam," the direct object of narras, is changed into the nominative 
or subject of narratur; and surdo remains the same in both sentences. The 
lc latter case," in other words, the remote object of the active voice is never, in 
Latin, converted into the subject of the passive except in a few instances which 
are manifest G-rascisms. See Greek Gram. § 154. Obs. 2. In English, however, 
there are some expressions in which this is allowed. See Eng. Gram. § 49. 
Obs. and Crombie's Etymology, p. 270. 

Hence, where, in some cases the Greek and English languages admit of two 
forms of expression, the Latin idiom admits of only one, e. g. " This was told 
to me," or " I was told this," is rendered into Latin by the first form; thus, 
Hoc mihi dictum est. But we cannot say according to the second form, Hoc die 
tus sum. 

Obs. 1. When the active voice is followed by three cases, § 114. 
Obs. 3. the passive has the two last ,• as, Hoc missum est mihi mun$- 
ri, " This was sent as a present to me." Here munh'i is the dative 
of the end. R. XIX. 

Rule XXXIII. Passive verbs frequently govern 
the dative of the doer; as, 

Vix audior ulli, I am scarcely heard by any one. 

Scriberis Vario, You shall be described by Varius. 

Nulla audita mihi sordrum. None of your sisters have been 
heard of by me. 
EXPLANATION.— This construction is used chiefly by the poets, and by 
them as a substitute for another still more common ; namely, that the volun- 
tary agent after the passive voice, is put in the ablative with a or ab and so 
comes under Rule XLIX. as, (in the active voice,) Clodius me diligit, " Clodius 



§ 127-8 SYNTAX. CIRCUMSTANCES. LIMITATION. 235 

loves me.' 5 (in the passive,) A Claudio diligor, u I am loved by Clodius. The 
preposition is sometimes omitted; as, colitur linigera turba. 

Obs. 2. After passive verbs the principle agent or actor, is usually 
expressed in the ablative with the preposition a, or ab ; as, Laudatus 
ab his, culpatur ab illis, il He is praised by these, he is blamed by 
those. " But, 

The secondary agent, means, or instrument after active, passive, or 
neuter verbs, is put in the accusative with per ; as, Per Thrasybulum 
Licifilium, ab exercitu recipitur. Nep.; but oftener in the ablative by 
Rule XXXV. 

Obs. 3. The passive participle in -dus, has the agent or doer almost 
always in the dative; and besides, when it agrees with the subject of a 
sentence, conveys the idea of obligation or necessity; as, Semel omnibus 
calcanda est via leti, li The way of death (is to be, i. e.) must once 
be trod by all. Hor. JLdhibendaest nobis diligentia, " Diligence must 
be used by us," i. e. we must use diligence. Cic. Ccesari omnia uno 
tempore erant agenda, u All things had to be done by Ccesar at one 
time.' 1 § 49. 6. 

Obs. 4. The accusative of place or time after neuter verbs in the 
passive voice, is not governed by the verb, but by a preposition un- 
derstood, or comes under other rules ; as, itur Athenas, Rule XXXVII. 
pugndtum est biduum. R. XLI. dormitur totamnoctem. R. XLI. We find, 
however, Totamihi dormltur hyems: Nodes vigilantur amarce ; Oce- 
anus aditur. Tac. 



$ 127. CONSTRUCTION OF CIRCUMSTANCES. 

Words and phrases are often thrown in between the parts of a 
sentence in an adverbial manner, to express some circumstance 
connected with the idea of the simple sentence, and which do not depend 
for their case on any word in the sentence to which they belong, but 
on a preposition or adverb or other word understood, or are by com- 
mon usage put in a particular case in certain circumstances without 
government or dependence on any words either expressed or under- 
stood. 

To this may be referred circumstances. 1. Of limitation, — 2. Of 
cause, manner, &c. — 3. Of place. — 4. Of time. — 5. Of measure.—S. 
Of price; as follows. 



§ 128. CIRCUMSTANCES OF LIMITATION. 

A particular qualification of a general expression, made in English 
by the phrase " in respect of," u with regard to," is expressed in 
Latin by the ablative or more briefly, as follows : 



236 SYNTAX. — OF CIRCUMSTANCES. CAUSE, &C. § 129 

Rule XXXIV. Respect wherein, and the part 
affected are expressed in the ablative ; as, 

Pietatejilius, In affection a son. 

Jure peritus, Skilled in law. 

Pedibus ceger, Lame in his feet 

EXPLANATION.— The ablative under this rule is used to limit the significa- 
tion of nouns, adjectives, and verbs, and may be variously rendered to express 
the nature of the limitation intended ; as, in, in respect of, with respect to, with 
regard to," &c. 

Obs. 1. The part affected, after adjectives and verbs, belongs to this 
rule, containing, as it does, a similar limitation of a general expression, 
as in the last of the above examples. The following are of a similar 
character. Anxius animo. Tac. Crine ruber; ore niger; Mart. Con- 
tremisco totd mente et omnibus artubus. Cic. Animoque et corptire tor* 
pet. Hor. 

Exc. The part affected, in imitation of a Greek construction, is 
sometimes expressed in the accusative ; as, Nudus membra, " Bare 
as to his limbs. " Virg. So, Sibila colla tumentem. Id. Expleri men- 
tern nequit. Id. Fractus membra. Hor. Tempora cinctus. Virg. This 
construction is in imitation of the Greek, (See Gr. Gr. § 137. Obs. 1.) 
The accusative may be governed by a preposition understood. 

Note. — The accusative in such phrases has usually been accounted for by 
supplying quoad, or quod ad, signifying ft as to,' 7 ct with regard to. j; Crombie 
in his Gymnasium, has clearly shewn that neither of these solutions are cor- 
rect. That quoad never governs an accusative, nor has the meaning here as- 
signed to it ; that quod ' ad is not justified by any good authority ; but that the 
proper supplement is, quod attinet ad, u as pertains to;' 5 quod spectat ad, "as 
regards." See Gymnasium, p. 261. et seq. 4th Ed, 

Obs, 2, To this rule may be referred the matter of which any thing 
is made ; as, JEre cavo clypeus, a shield of hollow brass. But here 
the preposition is commonly expressed ; as, Templum de marmore. 
In imitation of the Greeks, the matter is sometimes put in the geni- 
tive ; as crateres argenti, " goblets of silver." Gr. Gr. § 156. Obs. 3. 



$ 129. THE ABLATIVE OF CAUSE, MANNER, &c. 

Rule XXXV. The cause, manner, means, and 
instrument, are put in the ablative ; as, 

Palleo metu, I am pale for fear. 

Fecit suo more, He did it after his own way. 

Auro ostroque decori f Decked with gold and purple. 

Scribo calamo, I write with a pen. 

EXPLANATION.— The ablative in this rule is probably governed by a prepo- 
sition understood, — as there are numerous instances in which the preposition 
is expressed. The cause will be known by putting the question, "Why?" or 
11 wherefore V The manner, by " How V 1 The means, by " By what means t" 
The instrument, by "Wherewith?" 



§ 130 SYNTAX- — 01* CIRCUMSf ANCfiS. — PLACE. 237 

Obs. 1. The cause sometimes takes the prepositions per, propter t 
ob, with the accusative ; or de, e, ex, pr<e, with the ablative j as, 
Depulsus per invidiam ; Fessus de via. 

Obs. 2. The manner is sometimes expressed by a, ab, cum, de, ex 3 
per ; as, Be more suo. The means frequently by per, and cum; as, 
cum rneis copiis omnibus vexavi Amanienses. See § 126. Obs. 2. 

Obs. 3. The instrument properly so called seldom admits a prepo- 
sition, though among the poets, a, ab, de, sub, are sometimes used ; 
as, Pectora trajectusab ense; Exercere solum sub vomtre. 



§ 130. CIRCUMSTANCES OF PLACE. 

The circumstances of place may be reduced to four particulars. 
1. The place where, or in which. — 2. The place whither or to which, 
— 3. The place whence, ox from which. — 4. The place by, or through 
which. 

N. B. The following rules respecting place refer chiefly to the 
names of towns. Sometimes, though very seldom, the names of coun- 
tries, provinces, islands, &c. are construed in the same way. With 
these, however, the preposition is commonly added. 

The Place where, or in which. 
Rule XXXVI. The name of a town denoting 
the place where, or in which, is put in the genitive; 
as, 

Vixit Romce, He lived at Rome. 

Mortuus est Mileti, He died at Miletus. 

Exc. But if the name of the town where or in 
which, be of the third declension, or plural num- 
ber, it is expressed in the ablative ; as, 

Habitat Carthagine, He dwells at Carthage. 

Studuit Athenis, He studied at Athens. 

Obs. 1. When the name of a town is joined with an adjective, or com- 
mon noun in apposition, a preposition is commonly added j as, Roma 
in celebri urbe ; or in Romce celebri urbe ; or in Roma celebri urbe ; 
or sometimes, Romce celebri urbe. 

Note.— In this construction the name of a town in the third declension fre« 
quently has the ablative singular in i ; as, Habitat Carthagini. Fuere Sicyoni 
jamdiu Dionysia. Plaut. Tiburi genitus. Suet. 

06s. 2. The name of the town where, or in which, is sometimes, 
though rarely put in the ablative when it is of the first or second de- 
clension ; as, Tyro rex decedit; for Tyri, " The king dies at Tyre ;" 
Just. Hujus exemplar Roma nullum habemus. Vitruv. 

Obs. 3. The preposition in is sometimes expressed before the ab- 
lative ; as, In Phillippis quidam nunciavit. Suet. At, or near a 



238 SYNTAX. OF CIRCUMSTANCES. — PLACE. § 130 

place is expressed by ad, or apud with the accusative ; as, Ad } or apud. 
Trojam, " at or near Troy." 

2. The Place whither, or to which. 

Rule XXXVII. The name of a town denoting 
the place whither, or to which, is put in the accu- 
sative ; as, 

Venit Romam, He came to Rome. 

Profectus est Athenas, He went to Athens. 

Obs. 4. Among the Poets, the town to which is sometimes put in the 
dative ,* as, Carthagini nuncios mitt am. Hor. 

Obs. 5. After verbs of telling, and giving, when motion to is im- 
plied, the name of a town is sometimes put in the accusative ; as, 
Romam erat nunciatum, " The report was carried to Rome." Messanam 
littras dedit. 

3. The place whence, or from which. 

Rule XXXVIII. The name of a town whence 
or from which ; or by or through which, is put in 
the Ablative ; as, 

Discessit Corintho : He departed from Corinth, 

Laodiced iter fecit, He went through Laodicea. 

Obs. 6. The place by or through which, however, is commonly 
put in the accusative with per; as, Per Thebas iter fecit. Nep. 

Domus and Rus. 
Rule XXXIX. Domus and rus are construed in 
the same way as names of towns ; as, 

Manet domi, He stays at home, 

Domum revertitur, He returns home. 

Domo arcessitus sum, I am called from home. 
So also. 

Vivit rure or ruri, He lives in the country. 

Abiit rus, He is gone to the country. 

Rediit rure, He is returned from the country. 

Obs. 7. Humij militice, and belli, are likewise construed in the 
genitive like names of towns ; as, Jacet humi, u he lies on the 
ground;" Domi et militice, (or belli,) " At home or abroad." 

Obs. 8. When domus is joined with an adjective the preposition is 
commonly used ; as, In domo paternd. So, ad domum paterna?n } Ex- 
domo paternd, — Except with meus, tuus, suus, noster, vester, regius, 
and alienus; then it follows the rule. When domus has another sub- 
stantive in the genitive after it, it may be with or without a preposi- 
tion ; as, Deprehensus est domi, domo, or in domo C&saris 



§131 



SYNTAX.— -OP CIRCUMSTANCES. TIME. 239 



Obs. 9, Rus and rure in the singular joined with an adjective are 
used with, or without a preposition. But rura in the plural, is never 
without it. 

Obs. 10. The names of countries, provinces, and all other places 
except towns, are commonly construed with a preposition ; as, Na* 
tus in Italia; Abiit in Italiam; Rediit ex Italia; Transit per Italiam, 
&c. A few cases occur, however, in which names of countries, pro- 
vinces, &c. are construed like the names of towns without a prepo- 
sition ; as, Pompeius Cypri visus est, &c. Caes. 

Peto, u I seek, ,; or " go to/' always governs the accusative as an 
active verb without a preposition j as, Petivit Egyptum, " he went 
to Egypt." 



§ 131. CIRCUMSTANCES OF TIME. 

Rule XL. Time when, is put in the ablative j 
as, 

Venit hora tertid, He came at three o'clock. 

Rule XLI. Time how long, is put in the accu- 
sative or ablative ; as, 

Mansit paucos dies, He staid a few days. 

Sex mensibus abfuit, He was absent six months. 

EXPLANATION. — A precise period or point of time, is usually put in the ab* 
lathe, — continuance of time, not marked with precision, for the most part in 
the accusative. 

Note. — It must be observed here, that the point of time under this rule, must 
coincide with the time of the verb with which it is connected, otherwise the 
rule does not hold good. — Thus, "He invited me to dine with him next day," 
is properly rendered under this rule. Secum postero die ut pranderem invito.* 
vit; because postero die and pranderem are cotemporary. But if we change 
the verb pranderem for a noun, postero die will not do in the ablative, but 
must be changed thus; ad prandium me invitavit in posterum diem. Postero 
die in this sentence, would mean that the invitation was given next day, and 
would be rendered in English, "Next day he invited me to dinner." 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs. 1. All the circumstances of time are often expressed with a 
preposition; such as, in, de, ad, ante, circa, per, &c. Sometimes ad 
or circa, is understood before hoc, illud, id, isthuc, with cdatis, tem- 
poris, horce, &c. following in the genitive; as, id temporis, (sc. ad) 
for eo tempore, &c. 

Obs. 2. Precise time, before or after another fixed time, is express- 
ed by ante, or post, regarded as adverbs, either with the accusative or 
ablative; aliquot ante annos. Paucis ante diebus. Paucos post dies, 
&c. 

Sometimes quam with a verb, are added to ante or post j as, Paucis 
post diebus quam Luca discessZrat. A few days after he had depart- 
ed from Luca Sometimes post is omitted before quam-, as, die vi- 
gesima quam creatus trat. 



240 SYNTAX. OF CIRCUMSTANCES. MEASURE. § 132 

Obs. 3. Instead of postquam, we sometimes find ex quo, or quum, 
or a relative agreeing with the preceding ablative j as, Octo diebus 
quibus has lit ^r as dab am. Eight days after I gave these letters. 

Obs. 4. The adverb abhinc, is used to express past time, joined 
with the accusative or ablative, without a preposition j as, Factum 
est abhinc biennio, or biennium. It was done two years ago. 



§ 132. CIRCUMSTANCES OF MEASURE. 

Rule XLII. Measure or distance is put in the 
accusative, and sometimes in the ablative ; as, 

Murus est decern pedes altus, The wall is ten feet high. 

Urbs distat triginta millia or tri- } rp. .. . ,. . .. , .* 

ginta mllibus passuum, \ The Clt y 1S dlstant twent y mlles - 
Iter or itinZre unius diei, One day's journey. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs. 1. The accusative or ablative of measure is put after such 
adjectives, and verbs of dimension ; as, Longus, latus, crassus, pro* 
fundus, altus; Patet, porrigitur, eminet, &c. The names of mea- 
sure are, pes, cubitus, ulnus, digitus, palmus, mille passuum, a 
mile, &c. 

Obs. 2. The accusative or ablative of distance is used only after 
verbs which express motion or distance ; as, eo, curro, duco, a6- 
sum, disto, &c. The accusative under this rule may be governed by 
ad, or per understood, and the ablative by a, or ab. 

Obs. 3. When the measure of more things than one is expressed, 
the distributive numeral is commonly used ; as, Muri sunt denos 
pedes alti, u The walls are each ten feet high." Sometimes denum 
pedum, for denorum is used in the genitive, governed by ad mensuram, 
understood. But the genitive is used to express the measure of 
things only in the plural. 

Obs. 4. The distance of the place where any thing is said to be 
done, is usually expressed in the ablative or in the accusative with a 
preposition ; as, Sex millibus passuum ab urbe consedit ; or ad sex 
millia passuum. Cses. 

Rule XLIII. The measure of excess, or defi- 
ciency is put in the ablative ; as, 

Sesquipede longior, Taller by a foot and a half. 

Novem pedibus minor, Less by nine feet. 

Quanto doctior, tanto submissior, The more learned, the more humble. 

Obs. 5. To this rule are to be referred the ablatives tanto, quanto, 
quo, eo, hoc, aliquanto, multo, paulo, nihilo, &c. frequently joined 
to comparatives, as in the last example j and sometimes with super* 
latives or verbs 



§ 133-4 SYNTAX. — OF ADVERBS. 241 

§ 133, CIRCUMSTANCES OF PRICE. 

Rule XLIV, The price of a thing is put in the 
ablative; as, 

Constitit talento, It cost a talent. 

Ve.udidit hie auro patriam, This man sold his country for gold. 

Exc. But tanti, quanti, pluris, minoris, are used in the 
genitive ; as, 

Quanti constitit ? How much cost it ? 

Non vendo pluris quam cceteri, I do not sell for more than others. 

Obs. 1. When joined with a noun, tanti, quanti, &c. are put in 
the ablative ; as, Quam tanto pretio mercatus est. Tanto, quanto. 
and plure are sometimes though rarely found without a noun ; as. 
plure venit, " it is sold for more." 

Obs. 2. The ablative of price is often an adjective without a noun; 
as, magno, permagno, parvo, paululo, tantulo, minimo, plurimo, 
mix, nimio. These refer, however, to some such noun as pretio, 
are, &c. understood. Valeo is found with an accusative. 



§ 134. CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS. 

Rule XLV. Adverbs are joined to verbs, adjec- 
tives, and other adverbs, to modify and limit their 
signification; as, 

Bene scribit, He writes well. 

Fortiter pugnans, Fighting bravely. 

Egregiejidelis, Remarkably faithful. 

Satis bene, Well enough. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs. 1. Adverbs are sometimes joined with nouns, as, Homerus plane 
orator, Homer evidently an orator. 

Obs. 2. The adverb is usually placed near the word modified or 
limited by it. 

Negatives. 

Obs. 3. Two negatives in Latin, as well as in English, destroy each 
other, or are equivalent to an affirmative; as, Nee non senserunt, 
" nor did they not perceive;" i. e. et senserunt, " and they did per- 
ceive." So, Non poteram non exanimari metu. Cic. Non sum nesci- 
us, i. e. scio ; haud nihil est, " it is not nothing," i- e. "it is some- 
thing;' 7 nonnulli, "not none," i. e. " some;" nonnunquam, "not 
never," i. e. "sometimes;" non nemo, "not nobody," i. e. "some- 
body," &c. 

Obs. 4. Exc. In imitation of the Greeks, however, two negatives 
in Latin, as well as in English, sometimes make a stronger nega- 

21 



242 SYNTAX. OF ADVERBS. § 135 

tive; as, Neque ille hand objiciet mihi, i: He will not by any means 
object to me;" Jura te non nociturum homini nemini, &c. Neque, and 
nee, and sometimes non, are especially thus used after a negative; 
as, Non me carminlbus vincct, nee Orpheus, nee Sinus. 

Obs. 5. Non is sometimes omitted after non modo,. or non solum, 
when followed in a subsequent clause by ne quidem; as. Mihi non 
modo irasci, (i. e. non irasci,) sed ne dolere quidem impune licet. 
Sometimes, but rarely, it is omitted after sed, or verum, with etiam; 
as, Non modo eafutura timet, (i. e. non timet,) verum etiam fert susti- 
netque prcesentia. For ne, and ut, with timeo, &c. see§ 140. Obs. 6. 

Obs. 6. Certain adverbs are joined to adjectives in all the degrees 
of comparison, for the purpose of imparting greater force to their 
signification; as, 

1st. To the positive are joined such adverbs as, apprime, admbdum, 
vehementer, max^me, perquam, valde, oppidb, and per, in composition; 
as, gratum admodum, very agreeable; perquam puerile, very childish; 
&c. In like manner, Parum, multum, nimium, tantum, quantum, ali- 
quantum; as, parum fir mas; multum bonus. 

2d. To the comparative are joined, Paulo, nimio, aliquanto, eo, quo, 
hoc, impendio, nihil o; as, Eo gravior est dolor quo culpa major. — Cic. 
See § 132. Obs. 5. Sometimes, also, parum, multum, &c. as with the 
positive. 

3d. To the superlative are joined Facile, meaning " certainly," 
i: undoubtedly;" longe. quam, also tanto, quanto, multo, &c. as, Fa- 
cile doctissimus, certainly the most learned; longe bellicosissima, (sc. 
gens.) by far the most warlike; quam maxlmas potest copias armat, 
he arms as great forces as possible. 

4th. Quam, (and also ut,) is also used as an intensive word with the 
positive, but in a sense somewhat different, resembling an exclama- 
tion; as, Quam difficile est ! how difficult it is! quam, or ut crudelis! 
how cruel! Flens quam familiar iter , weeping how affectionately, 
i. e. very affectionately; quam severe, how severely, i. e. very severely. 



§ 135. CASES GOVERNED BY ADVERBS. 

Rule XL VI. Some adverbs of time, place, and 
quantity, govern the genitive ; as, 

Pridie ejus diet, The day before that day. 

Ubique gentium, Every where. 

Satis est verborum, There is enough of words. 

1. Adverbs of time governing the genitive are, Inter ea, postea, inde, 
tunc; as, Interea loci, in the mean time; postea loci, afterwards; inde 
loci, then; tunc tempbris, at that time. 

2. Of place, Ubi, and quo, with their compounds, ubique, ubicunque, 
ubivis, ubiubi, quovis, &c. Also, eo, hue, huccine, unde, usquam, 
nusquam, longe, ibidem, &c. ; also, usquam, nusquam, unde ter- 
varum, or gentium; longe gentium; ibidem loci, eb audacice, — vecor- 
dice — miseridrum, he. to that pitch of boldness — madness — misery, &c. 



§ 136 SYNTAX. PREPOSITIONS. 243 

3. Of quantity, Abunde, affdtim, largiter, nimis, satis, parum, mi- 
nim e; as, Abunde gloria ; affdtim divitidrum; largiter auri ; satis elo- 
quentia ; sapientia parum est illi, or habet, He has enough of glory, 
riches, &c. Minimi gentium, by no means. 

Obs. 1. Ergo, (for the sake of,) instar Sindpartim, also govern the 
genitive,- as, Dondri virtutis ergo. 

Obs. 2. Pridie and Postridie, govern the genitive or accusative; as, 
Pridie Kalendas, sup. ante; Postridie Kalendas, sup. post. 

Obs. 3. En and Ecce govern the nominative or accusative,- as, En 
causa; Ecce homo or hominem, sometimes a dative is added; as, Ecce 
duas aras tibi. Virg. In such constructions, a verb may be under- 
stood. The dative may be referred to, § 109. 3. 

Obs. 4. Certain prepositions used adverbially by the poets, are 
followed by the dative; as, Mihi clam est, it is unknown to me. Con- 
tra nobis. 

Rule XLVIL Some derivative adverbs govern 
the case of their primitives ; as, 

Omnium optime loquitur, He speaks the best of all. 

Convenienter naturce, Agreeably to nature. 

Venit obvidm ei, He came to meet him. 

Proxime castru or castra, Next the camp. 
EXPLANATION. — In the first example, optime is derived from optimus, 
which governs the genitive by Rule X. § 107. Convenienter and obviam, are de- 
rived from conveniens and obvius, which govern the dative by Rule XVI. § 111. 
And proxime is derived from proximus, which governs the dative or accusative 
bv Rule XVI. Obs 5. § 111. 



§ 136. CASES GOVERNED BY PREPOSITIONS. 

Rule XL VIII. Twenty-eight prepositions, ad 9 
apud, ante, &c. govern the accusative; as, 

Ad patrem, To the father. 

Rule XLIX. Fifteen prepositions, a, ab, abs, 
&c. govern the ablative ; as, 

A poire, From the father. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs. 1. Clam, one of these fifteen, is sometimes followed by the 
accusative ; as, clam vos, without your knowledge. When followed 
by a genitive or dative ; as. Clam patris. Ter. Mihi clam est. Plaut. 
A substantive may be understood, or they may be regarded as adverbs- 

Obs. 2. Tenus after a plural noun, commonly has it in the genitive ; 
as, crurum tenus. Virg. 



244 SYNTAX. PREPOSITIONS. § 136 

Rule L. The prepositions in, sub, super, and 
subter, denoting motion to, or tendency towards, 
govern the accusative ; as, 

Venit in Urbem, He came into the city. 

Amor in te, Love towards thee. 

Sub jugum ?nissus est, He was sent under the yoke. 

Incidit super agmina, It fell upon the troops. 

Rule LI. The prepositions in and sub denoting 
situation, govern the ablative ; super and subter ei- 
ther the accusative or ablative ; as, 

Jacet in terra, He lies upon the ground. 

Media in urbe, In the middle of the city. 

In poetis, Among the poets. 

Sub mamlbus. Under the walls. 

Obs. 3. To both of these rules there are some exceptions. In- 
stances occur in which in and sub denoting motion to, or tendency to- 
wards, instead of the accusative govern the ablative ; as, In cospectu 
rneo audet venire ; sub jugo dictator hosier misit. Others are found in 
which they govern the accusative when they denote situation ; as, 
Mihi in mentemfuit. Hostes sub montem consedisse, &c. 

Obs. 4. The preposition in with the accusative usually signifies in- 
to, towards, until, for, against ; with the ablative in, upon, among. 
With both cases, however, considerable variety of translation is ne- 
cessary to convey correctly the idea of the original. The following 
a re instances, " In the case of," Talis in hoste fuit Priamo. Virg. 
\- On account of," In quo facto domum revocatus ; — In sex mensibus, 
'■ Within six months ;" In dies, " from day to day." So, in horas, 
' l from hour to hour;" in capita, u per head j" in pueritia, " during 
boyhood ;" in hoc tempore, Ci at this time," &c. 

Obs. 5. The preposition is frequently understood before its case ; 
as, Devencre locos. Virg. Homo id cetatis. Cic. Propior montem. 
Sail. In which ad is understood. So, Nunc id prodeo, sc. ob; — Ter. 
Maria asptra juro, sc. per. Se loco movere, sc. e, or de ; Quid ill o fa- 
cias? sc. in or de, u what can you do in his case?" Ut patrid expelle- 
retur, sc. ex. Nep. 

Obs. 6. Sometimes, but much more rarely, the case is omitted 
after the preposition ; as, circum Concordice, sc. cedem. Sail. Multis 
post annis, i. e. post id tempus. 

Rule LIL A preposition in composition often 
governs its own case ; as, 

Adeamus urbem, Let us go to the city. 

Exeamus urbe, Let us go out of the city. 

EXPLANATION.— By "its own case" is meant the case it governs when not 
in composition. This rule takes place only when the preposition may be sepa- 
rated from the verb, and placed before the case, without altering the sense. 
Thus, Adeamus urbem, and Eamus ad urbem, express the same thing. 



§ 137 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. TENSES. 245 



Obs. 7. The preposition is often repeated after the compound word; 
the case is then governed by the preposition repealed; as, Exire e 
jinibus. Caes. Nunquam accedo ad te, quin abs te abeam doctior. Ter. 
Note.— Some verbs never have the preposition repeated after them ; such as, 
AJfaris, alloquor, allatro, alluo, accolo; cir cum, with vertio, eo, sto, sedeo<volo; obeo 
pratereo, abdico, eff'ero, everto, &c. Some compounds with inter, and prceter l 
commonly omit the preposition. The compounds of in, ob, and sub generally 
take the dative; those of super generally the accusative. 

Obs. 8. Some verbs compounded with e, or ex, are followed by an 
accusative or ablative ; as, exire limen. Ter. Exire septis. Virg. 
Some words compounded with prce, take an accusative ; as, Tibur 
aquce prcejluunt. Hor. In some of these cases, however, the accusa- 
tive may be governed by prceter or extra understood. 

Obs. 9. The case governed by the preposition in composition is 
sometimes omitted ; as, Emitter e servum, sc. manu. Plaut. EvomHe 
virus, sc. ore ) Cic. Eductre copias, sc. castris. Caes. 

For the construction of interjections, see § 117. 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 

$ 137. CONNEXION OF TENSES. 

The tenses in the indicative and subjunctive moods, so far as relates 
to their construction may be divided into two classes, Primary and 
Secondary , as follows, 

Primary. Secondary 

Present, Imperfect. 

Perfect definite. § 43. III. Perfect indefinite. § 43. III. 

Futures. Pluperfect. 

With the primary tenses may be classed the Imperative Mood. 
Of these tenses the Primary are used to express actions, &c. as 
present or future j the Secondary, in the recital of these actions as 
past. 

In the construction of sentences consisting of different members, 
the subjunctive mood in the subordinate or secondary parts, usually 
corresponds in time to the tense in the primary or leading part 
Hence the following Rule. 

Rule LIII. Any tense of the subjunctive mood 
may follow a tense of the same class in the in- 
dicative; as, 

Pres. Lego, } I read, } 

PERF.DEF.Xegi, >ut discam, I have read, > that I may learn 

Fut. Legam, ) I will read. ) 

Imfer. Lege, utdiscas. Read that you may learn. 

Imper. Legebam, } I was reading, ) 

Per iNDEF.iegi, > ut discerem.l read, > that I might learn, 

Plup. Leg cram, ) I had read, ) 

21* 



246 SYNTAX. MOODS. § 138-9 

EXPLANATION". — In clauses connected, the present, the perfect and pen . 
phrastic future with sim or fuerim, § 79. 8, in the subjunctive mood, may fol- 
low either the present, or the perfect definite, or the futures, of the indicative, or 
the imperative mood. In like manner, the imperfect, the perfect definite, and the 
periphrastic future with essem or fuissem in the subjunctive mood, may follow 
either the imperfect, or the perfect indefinite, or the pluperfect in the indicative. 

Obs. 1. When the present tense of the indicative is used in narra- 
tion for the past, § 43. I. 3. it may be followed by the secondary 
tenses of the subjunctive, as Legatos mittuntut pacem impetrarent. 

Obs. 2. Primary tenses are sometimes followed by secondary, and 
secondary by primary, in order to express actions whose time is dif- 
ferent. 

Obs. 3. When the subjunctive follows an infinitive or participle in 
the primary clause, the class of tenses employed, usually corresponds 
with the time of the verb on which the infinitive or participle de- 
pends. 

N. B . This rule and the observations under it, are to be regarded 
as stating only general principles, the deviations from which, in ex- 
pressing the endless variety of relations among actions with refer- 
ence to time, dependence ; &c. can be learned only by practice and 
close attention to classic usage. 

For the interchange of tenses in the same and in different moods, 
see observations or the tenses, § 44 and 45. 



§ 138. CONSTRUCTION OF THE INDICATIVE 
MOOD. 

The indicative mood is used in Latin to express what is actual and 
certain, in an absolute and independent manner ; as, veni, vidi, vici, 
11 I came, saw, and conquered/'' It is also used in direct and inde- 
pendent interrogations; as. Quid agis ? what are you doing? 

- The indicative mood is used in conditional and dependent clauses, 
to denote, not what is contingent or uncertain, but what is supposed, 
or admitted as fact; as, Si vales bene est, if you are in health it is 
well, i. e. " since you are in health." 

The signification and use of this mood, in its several tenses, have 
been specified, § 44. 



§ 139. THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE SUBJUNC- 
TIVE MOOD. 

[For the character and meaning of this mood, in its several tenses, 
see § 42. II. and § 45.] 

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 
1. The subjunctive mood is used in dependent clauses 
only, and consequently, must be preceded by another verb 



§ 140 SYNTAX. MOODS. 247 

in the indicative, imperative, or infinitive mood, expressed or 
understood, with which it is connected by a conjunction, a 
relative or indefinite word. On this fact the whole construc- 
tion of this mood depends. 

2. The subjunctive mood, in Latin, is used in all cases 
where the potential or subjunctive moods are used in Eng- 
lish, i. e. ; it is used to express all those tenses of the Eng- 
lish verb formed by the signs, may, can, might, could, mould, 
or should, (except as noticed § 42. Obs. 2.) and all actions, 
&c. represented not as actual, positive, and certain, but as 
conditional, contingent, and uncertain. 

So far, the construction of the subjunctive in Latin agrees, gene- 
rally, with the English and the Greek. Its use, however, is much 
more extensive in Latin, being used in many cases where the indica- 
tive is used in these languages. In the construction of sentences, 
this mood is subject to the following rules. 



§ 140. SUBJUNCTIVE AFTER CONJUNCTIONS, IN- 
DEFINITES, &c. 

Rule LIV. The conjunctions itt, quo, licet, ne, uti- 
nam, and dummodo, &c. and words used indefinitely 
in dependent clauses, for the most part, require the 
subjunctive mood; as, 

Lego ut discam, I read that I may learn. 

Nescit quis sim, He knows not who I am. 

EXPLANATION.— The conjunctions requiring the subjunctive mood, are 
those which imply doubt, contingency, uncertainty, and the like. When these 
ideas are not intended to be expressed, the indicative is used, and the conjunc- 
tion must be translated differently. So, also with indefinites, 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs. 1. Conjunctions and words requiring the subjunctive under 
this rule, are the following, viz: 

1st. Ut, quo, ne, quomlnus, referring to the final cause. 

2d. Si, tit si, quasi, ac si, ceque acsi,perinde, ut si, aliter ac si, velut 

si, velut, quanquam, ceu, u as if," expressing a supposition. 
3d. Licet, etiamsi, quamvis, quin, for qui non, quod non, utnon, or 

quo minus, 

4th. Ut qui, utpote qui, utpote quum, modo, dum, and dummodo, 
a provided j" and the particles of wishing, Uiinam. Osiut, 
for utinam. 



248 SYNTAX. MOODS. § 141 

5th. The interrogative and indefinite particles, an, ne, num, utrum, 
anne, annon, &c. — the adverbs, quomodo,ut, quam, ubi, quo, 
wide, qua, quorsum, and the like. — The indefinites, quis, cujas, 
&c. — and the adjectives, quantus, qualis, quotus, quotuplex, 
uter, utervis, when the sense is doubtful or contingent. 

Obs. 2. Many of these conjunctions are used also with the indica- 
tive mood. When so used, they are to be regarded merely as con- 
nectives, or adverbially, denoting circumstances of time, manner, &c. 

Obs. 3. Many other conjunctions are used sometimes with the indi- 
cative, and sometimes with the subjunctive mood; such as, Quum or 
cum, etsi, tamenetsi, quanquam, si, sin, ne, nisi, siquidem, quod, quia, 
&c. — Quoniam, quando, and quando quidem, usually have the indica- 
tive. 

Obs. 4. Quum or cum, when it signifies time, merely, takes the in- 
dicative, and is translated when; as, tempus fuit quum homines vaga- 
bantur. When it denotes a connection of thought, implying depen- 
dence, it takes the subjunctive, and may be translated variously, ac- 
cording to the nature of the connection, since, although, as scon as, 
seeing that, &c. as cum ea ita sint, ll since these things are so." 

In narration it is joined with the imperfect, and pluperfect sub- 
junctive, even when it relates to time, but then the event denoted by 
the subjunctive, usually relates to that expressed in the clause on 
which the subjunctive depends, not only in regard to time, but also 
in some sense as a cause; as, cum sciret Clodius iter necessarium 
Miloni esse Lanuvium, Roma subito ipse profectus est. u As soon as 
Clodius knew that it was necessary for Milo to go to Lanuvium, he 
immediately set out from Rome," the knowledge of this fact was 
connected with his sudden departure as a cause. Also, when it de- 
notes time only in an oblique clause, § 141. Rule VI. 

Obs. 5. The conjunction ut, is elegantly omitted after volo, nolo, rogo, 
precor, censeo, suadeo, licet, oportet, necesseest, and the like. Also after 
the imperatives sine,fac, or facito: as, Precor venias, " I beg (that) 
you would come f fac facias, " see (that) you do it." 

Obs. 6. After the verbs timto, verZor, and the like, ut is used in a 
negative sense as, " that not/' and ne in an affirmative sense j as, 
Timco ut facial, " I fear that he will not do it." Timeo nefaciat, " I 
fear that he will do it." In a few examples, however, ut seems to 
ha^e an affirmative and ne a negative meaning. 



§ 141. THE SUBJUNCTIVE AFTER THE RELATIVE. 

Rule LV. The relative qui, quce, quod, requires 
the subjunctive, when it refers to an indefinite, 
negative or interrogative word — to words imply- 
ing comparison, — or assigns the reason, cause or 
end of that which precedes, — and also in all cases 
of oblique narration. 



§ 141 SYNTAX. MOODS. 249 

This General Rule may be subdivided into the following, 
SPECIAL RULES. 

Rule I. When the relative qui, quce, quod, refers to an 
indefinite, negative, or interrogative word, it requires the 
subjunctive mood 5 as, 

Sunt qui dicant, Some people say. 

Nemo est qui haudintellig at, There is no one who does not understand. 

Quis est qui utilia fugiat ? Who is there that shuns what is useful ? 

EXPLANATION.— This rule takes effect only when the antecedent is some- 
thing indefinite and when the relative clause is the predicate of the sentence, 
i. e. when it expresses what is affirmed or denied respecting the subject of the 
verb, and has for its antecedent, the indefinite, negative or interrogative itself, 
and not any intervening word. These are indispensable conditions of this rule. 
When, therefore, the relative clause is used to restrict or limit the indefinite 
subject of the proposition of which something else is predicated; — or when 
it has for its antecedent some intervening word, and not the indefinite itself 
the verb" after the relative is usually in the indicative. 

Obs. 1 . The indefinites referred to in this rule are the indefinite 
pronouns, § 34. Obs. 2, and § 35. (except quldam,) and the periphras- 
tic expressions , est qui, sunt qui, fuerunt qui, li Some one," " some ;" 
to which may be added the verbs reperio, invenio, habeo, adsum, desum, 
venio, and some others used in a similar manner, by which indefinite 
expressions are formed nearly of the same import with est qui, sunt 
qui. &c; as, Omnis cetas quod agat inveniet. 

The negative antecedents most common under this rule are such as 
Nemo est, nullus est, unus non est, alius non est or extat, nihil est, nee 
or non quisquam est, vix ullus est, nee ullus est, vix declmus quisque est, 
(or anjr other ordinal used in a similar manner,) non multisunt, non 
multum est ; also, non est, or nihil est, meaning " there is no cause," 
or " reason why," and also after non or nihil habZo . After these 
last, quod, u which," must follow, governed by propter understood j 
as, Non est quod scribas. 

The interrogative expressions in the antecedent clause under this 
rule are chiefly these. Quis est? quantus est? Uter est? Ecquis est? 
Numquis est ? An quisquam est ? an est aliquis ? Quotusquisque est ? 
Quotus est ? Quot sunt? Quam multi sunt ? And also, Quid est ? Num- 
quid est ? " What cause V as, Num quid est quod timeas ? " why should 
you fear V 

Note. — Interrogatives under this rule are of a general character and usually 
imply a negation; as, Quis est quifaciat ? " Who is there that does it? ,; i. e. 
u nobody does it." 

Rule II. The relative is followed by the subjunctive when 
the relative and antecedent clauses involve a comparison, or. 
when the latter expresses the purpose, object or design, of 
something expressed by the former ; as, 

Dignus qui ametur, " Worthy to be loved." Quis tarn esset amens 
qui semper viveret ? " Who would be so foolish as to live always?" 



250 SYNTAX. MOODS. § 141 

EXPLANATION.— In all cases under this rule the relative is equivalent tout 
■with the personal pronoun representing the antecedent ; i. e. it is used for ut 
ego, ut tu, ut Me, utnos, ut vos, ut Mi. In such cases, ut with the personal 
pronoun, is frequently used instead of the relative. Here, also, the relative 
clause must belong, not to the subject, but to the predicate of the sentence, 
for in such cases only can it be resolved into ut ego, &c. 

Obs. 2. The relative is used in this sense and requires the 
subjunctive, 

1st. When it comes after dignus, indignus, idoneus, and the like in 
the predicate ; as, Patres, si dignum qui (utille) secundus ab Romulo 
numeretur, crearitis. auctores flent. 

2d. When it follows tarn, tantus, adeo ; as, Quis est tarn Lynceus, 
qui in tantis, tenebris nihil offendaf? i. e. ut in tantis, &c. " Who is 
so quick sighted that he would not stumble in such darkness ?" — In 
like manner when it follows talis, ejusmodi, hujusmodi, the subjunc- 
tive is commonly used ; as, est innocentia affectio talis animi qui no- 
ceat nemini, — Also after is, ille, and hie in the sense of talis ; as, 
Non tu is es qui nescias, li you are not such a one as not to J$:now." 
Sometimes in such cases ut takes the place of qui; as, Neque enim 
is es, Catalina, ut te pudor revocdrit, &c. 

3d. When it follows a comparative with quam; as, Major sum quam 
cui ipossit fortuna nocere. 

4th. When the relative clause expresses the purpose, object or de- 
sign, for which the person mentioned in the antecedent clause is ap- 
pointed, or the thing spoken of is possessed or done ; as, Lacedcemonii 
legatos Athenas miserunt qui (i. e. ut illi) eum absent em accusarent. 
In such sentences the relative and subjunctive may be properly ren- 
dered to, in order to ; thus, " The Lacedemonians sent ambassadors 
to Athens to accuse (or in order to accuse) him in his absence. ;j Some- 
times here also, ut takes the place of the relative ; as, missus sum ut 
(i. e. qui) te adducerem. 

Obs. 3. When qui combines with, its signification as a relative, or 
when the preceding clause implies, a force equal to so that, such that, 
the man to, such a man as, it requires the subjunctive ; as, stultum est 
timer e quod vitarenon possis, " It is foolish to fear that which (i. e. 
such a thing as) you cannot avoid. " In all such cases the antecedent 
clause conveys a vague and general idea, i. e. the person or things 
referred to are regarded as a species or class rather than as individuals. 

Rule III. When the relative with its clause assigns the 
cause or reason of the action or event announced by the an- 
tecedent clause, it requires the subjunctive ; as, 

Peccavisse mihi videor qui ate discessZrim, l{ I think that I have 
erred in having (or, because I) left you." 

EXPLANATION.— In all constructions of this kind, the relative is equivalent 
to quum, quod, quia, or quoniam ego, tu, is, nos, &c. signifying '•'because," or 
cl seeing that I/' ll thou, ;; &c. 

Obs. 4. The relative has this force in the expressions quippe qui. ut 
qui, utpote qui, and consequently is followed by the subjunctive ; as, 



§ 141 SYNTAX. MOODS. 251 

Libras non contemno, equidem, quippe qui nunquam legerim, "I do 
not indeed despise books for, (or because) I have never read them." 

Rule IV. When qui possesses a power equal to quan- 
quam, or elsi is, or to si, modo, or dummodo, "Although — if — 
provided that he, she, it, 5 ' &c. it requires the subjunctive 
mood; as, 

Tu aquam pumice postulas, qui, ipse sitiat, " You demand water 
from a pumice stone, though itself is parched with thirst. " Laco, con- 
silii quamvis egregii quod non ipse afferret inimicus, " Laco was the 
enemy of any measure, however excellent, if (i. e. provided that) he 
himself did not propose it." 

Rule V. The relative qui, takes the subjunctive after unus 
and solus; when they restrict the affirmation to a particular 
subject ; as, 

Hcec est una contentio quce adhue permanserat, "This is the only 
dispute which has remained till this time." 

Rule VI. In oblique or indirect discourse, the relative re- 
quires the subjunctive mood ; as, 

Socrates dicZre solebat, omnes in eo quod scirent satis esse eloquen- 
ies. " Socrates was accustomed to say, that all were eloquent enough 
in that which they knew.' 1 

EXPLANATION. — Discourse is said to be direct, when a writer or speaker 
delivers his own sentiments, — oblique, when a person relates in his ow T n lan- 
guage, what another speaker or writer said ; an example will best illustrate 
this distinction.— Tacitus introduces Galgacus, addressing the Caledonian ar- 
my as follows. "When I contemplate the causes of the war, and the necessi- 
ty to which we are reduced, great is my confidence that this day, and this union 
of yours, will prove the beginning of universal liberty to Britain. ;; This is the 
direct discourse. If, instead of introducing Galgacus himself to speakhis own 
speech, the historian had only told us what he said, he would have used the 
oblique or indirect style, thus. Galgacus said, " that when he contemplated 
the causes of the war, and the necessity to which they, (the Roman army,) 
were reduced, his confidence was great, that that day and that union of theirs, 
would prove the beginning of universal liberty to Britain." 

In the first of these, or the direct discourse, it will be observed that when the 
speaker refers to himself , he uses the first person, "I," "we." When he refers to 
those addressed, he uses the second person, "thou," "you," — and that the 
leading verbs in Latin are all in the indicative mood, and independent of any 
previous word. But in the second or oblique discourse, the third person only, 
is used, whether the speaker is said to refer to himself, or his hearers, or a 
third person. And the leading verbs in Latin, are in the infinitive mood, or in 
the subjunctive with ut, and in either case dependent on the verb with which 
the account is introduced, such as, "he said," "stated," "replied." or the 
like. It is evident, therefore, that while in both forms, the same idea is ex- 
pressed in nearly the same language, the construction of the sentence in each 
is entirely different; thus, in direct discourse : Antonius inquit, " Ars earum 
rerum est quce, sciuntur. Cic. Quinctilian relates the same thing in the oft- 



252 SYNTAX. — MOODS. § 141 

lique form; thus, lc Antonius ait, artem earum rerum esse qua sciantur. Here 
the leading verb in the direct form, is est, in the indicative mood, having no 
dependence on any previous word, and having its subject in the nominative case. 
In the oblique form, the same verb is in the infinitive, esse; it is dependent on 
ait, and has its subject in the accusative. In the first, the verb in the subordi- 
nate clause, is in the indicative, Sciuntur; in the last, it is in the subjunctive 
mood, sciantur. Hence, the following general principle. 

In every unmixed example of oblique iiarration^ two 
moods only are admissible, the infinitive and subjunctive, and 
consequently, as the relative is never employed but in the 
secondary, and subordinate members of a sentence, it must 
always, in oblique statements, be followed by the subjunc- 
tive. 

Obs. 5. In connection with this general principle, however, two things 
must be noticed. 

1st. In oblique discourse, the narrator frequently introduces a re- 
mark of his own, for the purpose of explanation, but yet so closely 
interwoven with the discourse he is reporting, as to seem to be"a part 
of it. Such remark is usually introduced with the relative, and the 
indicative, and may be detected by this construction: Thus, Diss eruit 
Ccesar, u non quidem sibi ignara" quae de Silano vulgabantur, " Sed 
non ex rumor e statuendwn." Caesar replied that those things, indeed, 
viz: which were rumoured concerning Silanus, were not unknown to 
him,&c.Tac. Here, the clause, quce de Silano vulgabantur , is not to 
be regarded as a part of what Caesar said, but as a clause thrown in 
by the historian to inform his readers what things they were which 
Cassar meant. But if the verb had been vulgarentur, it would have 
shewn that it was a part of what Caesar said. 

2d. In animated oblique narration, the historian sometimes sudden- 
ly passes from the oblique to the direct discourse, and instead of re- 
porting the remarks of the speaker, introduces him, as it were, to 
speak for himself. This is always manifest by the transition, from 
the use of the infinitive and subjunctive, to that of the indicative, 
and from the use of the third person to denote the speaker, and the 
person addressed, to that of the first and second. The following is 
often quoted as an appropriate example of this. (Oblique) " Sa- 
bines, mulieres dirimtre infestas acies, hinc patres, hinc viros orantes," 
ne se sanguine nefando, soceri, generique respergerent; ne parricidio 
maculdrent partus suos, nepotum illi, liberum hi progeniem. (Direct) 
Si piget affinitatis inter vos, si connubii piget, in nos vertite iras, nos 
causa belli, nos vulnSrum ac ccedium viris ac parentibus siimus, melius 
peribimus, quam sine alteris vestrum vidua aut orbce vivemus. Liv. 1. 13. 

Obs. 6. A verb in the Future perfect indicative, in direct discourse, 
w r ill always take the pluperfect subjunctive, when the same sentence 
is thrown into the oblique form, whatever be the tense of the intro- 
ductory verb; thus, Dabitur quodcunque optdris. Ov.; in the direct 
discourse, is thus related by Cicero, in the oblique form : SolPha- 
thonti filio facturum esse dixit quidquid optasset. 

Obs. 7. To this construction may be referred the subjunctive con- 
nected by a relative or casual conjunction with the preceding verb in 



§ 142-3 SYNTAX. MOODS, 253 

the indicative, for the purpose of expressing, not what the writer as* 
serts himself, but what is alleged by others; as, Socrates accusatus 
est quod co7'rumperet juventutem, u Socrates was accused, because (as 
was alleged,) he corrupted the youth. ,} The indicative here would 
assert on the part of the writer, that Socrates did corrupt the youth. 

Obs. 8. When an infinitive or subjunctive mood has a 
clause connected with it by a relative or other connecting 
word, for the purpose of restricting the predicate, otherwise 
indefinite, the verb of the latter clause is put in the subjunc- 
tive mood 5 as, 

Quid enim potest esse tarn perspicuum, quam esse aliquod numen quo 
hac regantur. " For what can be so clear, as that there is some 
divinity by whom these things are governed V 



5 142. CONSTRUCTION OF THE IMPERATIVE. 

1. The Imperative mood is used to command, exhort, &c. § 44. III. 
Its subject , with which it agrees by Rule IV. is the person or persons 
addressed in the command, &c, and hence, it is properly used only 
in the second person, In Latin, as well as in Greek, the imperative 
mood has a distinct form for the third person; it is, however, but 
seldom used, and chiefly in the enacting of laws, having the force of 
a command on those for whom they are designed. 

2. With the imperative, not is expressed by ne, and nor by neve; 
as, Ne crede colori* Virg. Hominemmortuum in urbene sepelito, ne- 
ve urlto. Cic» 

3. Instead of the simple imperative, sometimes fac or cave, with 
the subjunctive, are used, andwo/i with the infinitive; as, Fac venias, 
u come;" cave existimes, u do not think;' 5 Nolitimere, u do not fear." 
For other tenses, used imperatively, see § 44. Obs. 9. 



§ 143. CONSTRUCTION OF THE INFINITIVE. 

[For the tenses of the infinitive mood, in connection with different 
tenses of the verb, see § 47.] 

The infinitive mood, in Latin, is used in two ways; First as a ver- 
bal noun, and Second, as a verb. As a verbal noun, it has no sub- 
ject; as a verb, it always has. Without a subject it cannot form a 
proposition, or express an affirmation; with a subject it always does. 
In the first case it comes under the regimen of the verb, either alone 
as a verbal noun, or with the words depending upon it, as a substantive 
phrase . In the second it comes under its regimen only in connection 
with its subject, as a distinct, though dependent proposition or sub- 
stantive clause. Hence, all that belongs to the construction of this 
mood, may be comprised in what relates to the use of it, in these two 
ways, 

22 



254 SYNTAX. MOODS, § 119 

§ 144. I. THE INFINITIVE WITHOUT A SUBJECT. 

The infinitive without a subject, may be regarded as a 
verbal noun in the singular number, neuter gender, and in 
form indeclinable, but differing from all other nouns, inas- 
much as it involves the idea of time, and has all the power 
of governing that belongs to the verb. The character of the 
infinitive as a noun, is manifest from its being used in almost 
every way that a noun is. It is used, 

1. As the nominative to a verb,- as, Utinam emori fortunis meis 
honestus exitus esset; or as the nominative after the verb; ^Sive il- 
lud erat sinefunlre ferri. 

2. As a case in apposition to a preceding nominative; as, Res erat 
spectaculo digna, videre Xerxem, &c. It was a thing worthy of being 
seen, to see Xerxes, &c. 

3. It is used as a genitive after substantives and adjectives; as, 
Tempus est abire, for aheundi: Soli cantare perlti Arcades, for cantan- 
di or cantus* Rule VII. IX. 

4. As a dative after adjectives, &c; thus, Ei vos servire magis 
quam imperare parati estis. Rule XVI . 

5. As an accusative after an active verb; as, Da mihi fallere, Hor. 
Terrain cum primum a?*#n£,proscindere appellant; cum ittrum, oflfrin- 
gere dicunt. Varr. — After a preposition; as, Nihil interest inter dare 
et accipere. Sen. Pra^ter plorare. Hor. Prseter loqui. Liv. 

6. As a vocative; as, O vivere nostrum, for vita nostra. 

7. As an ablative in various constructions; as, dignus amari; as 
the case absolute; thus, Audlto regem in Siciliam tendere. This ex- 
ample, however, has a subject regem, Rule XXIII. 

8. It has an adjective or pronoun agreeing with it ; as, Scire tuum 
nihil est ; Ipsum dicere nunquam non ineptum est, &c. Cic. In this 
way we may account for the poetic u dulce loaui" u ridere deeo- 
rum," &c. 

9. It governs the genitive like a noun ; as, cujus non dimicare fuit 
vincere. 

It is however, chiefly as the subject or the object of a verb that 
it is thus used. Hence the following rules. 

Rule LVI. One verb being the subject of ano- 
ther, is put in the infinitive ; as, 

Facile est queri, To complain is easy. 

Mentiri turpe est, To lie is base. 

EXPLANATION.— In the first example the subject or thing spoken of is ex- 
pressed by the infinitive queri, which is therefore the nominative to the verb est. 
A noun used instead of queri would have to be in the nominative case. In such, 
sentences it is manifestly improper to say that est governs queri, just as it would 
be improper to say the verb governs its nominative. This rule applies also to 
the infinitive with a subject. 



§144 



SYNTAX. MOODS. 255 



Obs. 1. A proper attention to this rul> will show that many verbs 
considered impersonal, or thought to he used impersonally are not 
really so, but have an infinitive or a clause of a sentence for their 
subject or nominative ; thus. Nee profuit Hydra cresctre per damnum, 
*' Nor did it profit the Hydra to grow by his wounds.'' Ovid. Here, 
instead of saying that profuit is used impersonally, and governs cres* 
c8re in the infinitive j the true construction is that profuit is used per- 
sonally, and has cresctre for its nominative. So the following, Cadit 
in eundem miser eri et invidere . Cic. Vacare culpa magnum est sola- 
Hum; Neque est tefallere quidquam, &c. § 101. Obs, 3. 

Rule LVIL One verb governs another, as its 
object, in the infinitive ; as, 

Cupio discere. I desire to learn. 

EXPLANATION.— -The infinitive mood under this rule is equivalent to a noun 
in the case which the preceding verb usually governs : Thus, in the exam- 
ple Cupio is an active verb and governs discere, as if it were a noun in the ac- 
cusative. The meaning is that a verb, used as the object of another without a 
conjunction or connective word, must be put in the infinitive. This Rule also 
applies to the infinitive with a subject. 

Note. — In all cases under this rule, of the infinitive without a subject, the in- 
finitive expresses an act, or state, of the subject of the preceding verb. 

Obs. 2. The infinitive without a subject is used only after certain 
verbs, especially such as denote desire, ability, intention, or endeavor, 
such as, cupio, opto, volo, nolo, malo; — possum, queo, nequeo, valeo, 
cogito, conor, tendo, disco, doceo, debeo, &c. By the poets it is used 
after fuge, parce for noli, and sometimes after caveo, fugio, gaudeo, 
&c. In a few instances it is used after verbs of motion, to denote a 
purpose ; as, introit videre, u He came to see." Ter. Iniit consiiia 
tollere reges, " He devised a plan to destroy the kings." 

Obs. 3. In many cases the infinitive after such verbs may be 
changed for the infinitive with a subject ; as, cupio me esse clementem. 
Cic. for .esse clemens or clementem. § 103- Obs, 6. Or for the sub- 
junctive with ut; as, sententiam ne diceret recusavit, for sententiam 
dicer e. 

Obs. 4. The infinitive without a subject is also used after adjec- 
jectives and nouns. So used, it is equivalent to a noun in the case 
governed by such adjective or noun. See examples, § 144. No. 
3.4.6. 

Obs. 5. Sometimes the infinitive is understood j as, Ex provinciam 
Numidiam populus jussit; sc. dari. 

The Historical Infinitive. 

Obs. 6. The verb governing the infinitive is sometimes omitted; 
especially is this the case in historical narration when the infinitive 
follows a nominative case in the sense of the Imperfect indicative, or 
the Perfect indefinite j as, Invidere omnes mihi, " All envied me." 
Ter. At Romani domi militiceque intenti, festinare, parare, alius alium 
hortari. Sail. When thus used it is supposed to be governed by 
ccepit or cceperunt understood. Cases occur, however, in which 
this supplement cannot be made; as, Verum ingeniumejus haud ab- 
sxtrdum; posse faclre versus, jocum movere, &c. Sail. 



256 SYNTAX. MOODS. § 145 

$ 145. II. THE INFINITIVE WITH A SUBJECT. 

1. The infinitive with a subject possesses the character of the verb 
and affirms of its subject as in the indicative or subjunctive moods ; 
but only in subordinate and dependent propositions. These proposi. 
tions themselves have a substantive character, and generally stand in 
the relation of substantives to the verb on which they depend ; some- 
times as a nominative, but generally as an accusative or the ab- 
lative of manner or cause. Thus used, they maybe called substantive 
clauses — and as such they fall under the two preceding rules. Thus, 

1st. As the nominative according to Rule LVI, Tenon istud au- 
divisse mirum est, "That you have not heard that is wonderful." Here 
Te non istud audivisse stands as the nominative to est. 

2d. As the object or accusative after the verb, according to Rule 
LVII. Miror te non scribere, u I wonder that you do not write." 
Here, te non scribZre stands as the object of miror which governs it as 
an accusative by Rule XX. See Exp. 2. 

Rule LVIII. The subject of the infinitive is put 
in the accusative ; as, 

Gaudeo te valere, I am glad that you are well. 

EXPLANATION. — The subject of the infinitive is the person or thing spoken 
of in the dependent clause and may be, as in Rule IV. a noun, a pronoun, &c. 
and is always to be in the infinitive mood; except as in § 144. Obs. 6. Under this 
rule the infinitive with its subject forms a distinct proposition and is equiva. 
lent to the indicative, or subjunctive mood in English together with the connec- 
tive " tliatP Thus in the example, te valere contains the simple proposition 
il You are well." The equivalent of the English li that," connecting it as a 
subordinate clause with the preceding verb is implied in the infinitive form. If 
the infinitive stand after an accusative which does not form with it a distinct 
proposition, i. e. which is not its subject, it does not belong to this rule, but 
the accusative is governed by Rule XX.; as, Proteus pecus egit altos visere 
montes. Hence, 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs. 1. The English particle " that," maybe called the sign of the 
accusative before the infinitive, being used to connect the infinitive 
clause with the preceding. It may often be omitted, however, in 
translating, as it frequently is in English ; thus, Aiunt regem adven- 
tare, " They say the king is coming," or, " that the king is coming." 

Obs. 2. The accusative in Latin, is translated by the nominative 
in English. Hence, the accusative of the relative pronoun, referring 
to persons must be rendered who, not whom ; as, Quern confectum 
vulneribus diximus , " Who, we said, was exhausted with his wounds." 

Obs. 3. When the subject of the infinitive is the same with the 
subject of the preceding verb, it is seldom expressed, unless required 
to be emphatic ; as, Pollicitus sum scrip turum (esse) sc. me, " I 
promised that I would write." After verbs signifying to be accustom- 
ed, to dare, I can, I ought, the infinitives esse, judicari, videri, &c. 
having the same subject with the preceding verb, have an adjective 



§145 



SYNTAX. MOODS. 257 



or noun after them in the nominative case, indicating that the subject 
of the infinitive understood is regarded as a nominative according to 
the Greek construction. Gr. Gr. § 175. Exc. Thus, solet tristis 
videri; aude sapiens esse ; debes esse diligens. See also, § 103. 5. 6. 
7. 8. and 150. 3. 3d. 

Obs. 4. When the preceding verb is in the passive voice, the sub* 
ject of the infinitive may be changed into the subject of that verb, 
or remain unchanged in the accusative, the passive verb being used 
impersonally, or rather having the infinitive clause for its subject ; 
thus, Matrem Pausanice eo tempore vixisse dicltur, or, Mater Pausa- 
nice eo tempore vixisse dicitur, It is said that the mother of Pausanias 
was living at that time, or, the mother of Pausanias is said to have 
been living, &c. 

Obs. 5. The accusative with the infinitive in a subordinate clause 
is equivalent to the subjunctive with ut, quod, he. u that," preceding • 
as, Gaudeo te valere, or GaudZo ut valeas. Hence, the one ex- 
pression may often be changed for the other. Usage, however, has 
given a preference to the one form in some cases, and to the other in 
others ,* as, 

1st. When the dependent clause expresses purpose or design, or 
when u that" is equivalent to "in order that, so that, ut with the 
subjunctive is used. 

2d. After verbs of 'endeavoring , aiming, accomplishing, suchas/tfcio, 
officio, perficio, &c. the subjunctive with ut is used. 

3d. Verbs signifying to request, demand, admonish, advise, commis- 
sion, encourage, command, and the like usually take the subjunctive. 

4th, Ut with the subjunctive follows verbs signifying to happen, to 
occur, &c. as, fit, incidit, occurrit, coniingii ; est. restat, super* 
est, &c. 

5th. Verbs signifying willingness, unwillingness, permission, neces- 
sity, &c. commonly take the accusative with the infinitive. Also 
generally verbs denoting seeing, hearing, knowing , feeling , thinking, 
saying, &c. 

Obs. 6. After such verbs as existimo, puto, spero, affirmo, susplcor, 
&c. the place of the future infinitive is elegantly supplied by/ore, or 
fuiarum esse, followed by ut with the subjunctive ; as, Nunquam pu- 
tavi fore ut swpplex ad te venlrem, for (me) venturum esse. 

This construction is necessary vv hen the verb has no supine and 
consequently no future infinitive active. See § 47. 9. Fore is some- 
times used with the perfect participle passive to denote a future ac- 
tion in the passive voice : as, Quod vidsret nomine pads bellum invo- 
latum fore. 

Obs. 7. The verb on which the infinitive depends is sometimes 
omitted especially in interrogations, or exclamations, expressive of in- 
dignation j as, Mene incepto desistere nee posse, &c. Virg. In such 
cases, some such expression as credibile est is understood. 



22* 



258 SYNTAX. MOODS. § 146 

§ 146. CONSTRUCTION OF THE PARTICIPLES 

[For the lenses and use of the participles in certain connexions, 
see § 49.] 

Rule LIX. Participles, like adjectives, agree 
with their substantives in gender, number, and 
case ^ as, 

Homo car ens fraude, A man wanting guile. 

Pax tantum amata. Peace so greatly loved. 

Rem. Participles together with gerunds and supines being parts of the verb; 
govern the case of their own verb. So that no separate rule for the govern- 
ment of cases by these is at all necessary. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs. 1. The verbs do, reddo, volo, curo,facio, habZo, comperlo, with 
the perfect participle form a periphrasis similar to the compound 
tenses in English and other modern languages thus, Habeo comper- 
turn, for comperi, u I have found ;" Missamiram faciet for iram mit- 
tet, &c. 

Obs. 2. The perfect passive participle is often used to supply the 
place of a verbal noun, when such a noun is wanting, or but seldom 
used; as, Hce litterse recitatse magnum luctum fecerunt, " The read- 
ing of this letter, (not ' ; this letter being read") caused greatmourn- 
ing k " So, Captum Tarentum, u The taking of Tarentum;" receptus 
Hannibal, " the reception of Hannibal." Jib urbe condita, "from 
the building of the city," &c. 

Obs. 3. The future active participle is frequently used to denote 
the purpose or design of an action, and is in such case rendered to, 
in order to; as, Ad Jovem Hammonem per git consulturus de origine 
sua, " He goes to Jupiter Ammon to (or in order to) consult him 
about his origin." 

Obs. 4. The future participle in -dus, also denotes a purpose, when 
joined with verbs signifying to give, to deliver, to agree for, to have, 
to receive, to undertake, &c~ as, Test amentum tibi tradit legendum. 
He delivers his will to you to be read; So, His aera dedit habenda. 

Obs. 5. The participle in -dus, generally implies the idea of pro- 
priety, necessity, or obligation. This is almost always the case when 
it agrees with the subject of a sentence; as, Delenda est Carthago, 
Carthage must be destroyed. Sometimes, also, when it agrees with 
words not in the subject; as, Facta narrabas dissimulanda £i6i, " You 
were relating things which ought to have been concealed by you." 
The doer in such constructions, when expressed, must be in the dative. 
§ 126. Obs. 3. 

Note.— In most other cases, the participle in dus, is used as a present parti- 
ciple passive, § 49. Note 3. 

Obs. 6. Participles are often used in Latin, instead of a verb, and 
particle in explanatory and adversative clauses, to mark a variety of 
accompanying circumstances, and relations belonging to some noun in 
the leading proposition of the sentence; as, Curio ad focum sedenti 



§146 



SYNTAX. MOODS. 259 



magnum auri pondus Samnites attulerunt. To Curius as he was sit- 
ting by the fire, &c. Dionysius Syracusis expulsus Corinthi pueros do- 
cebat, Dionysius when he was expelled from Syracuse, &c. 

Sometimes; as in Greek, it is used to connect an accompanying 
with the main action, in the same subject as the cause, manner, or 
means of effecting it: as, Hoc faciens vivam melius, By doing this I 
will live better. Hor.' So used, it is equivalent to the ablative Gerund. 

Obs. 7. When a participle does not refer to some leading subject in 
the proposition, but to a new subject introduced, not depending on 
any word in the sentence, the participle is put with that new subject, 
in what is called. 

THE CASE ABSOLUTE. 

Rule LX. A substantive with a participle, 
whose case depends on no other word, is put in the 
ablative absolute ; as, 

« 7 - j. jy - 4. m i ^ The sun rising, or while the 
Sole orient e fusiunt Tenebrce. < : -, ?'„ fl -„ T „, r 

J 5 ' I sun rises, darkness flies away. 

EXPLANATION.— This rule properly belongs to the substantive only, with 
which the participle then agrees by the preceding rule. 

Obs. 8. This construction is much more frequent in Latin than in 
other languages, partly because there is no perfect participle in the 
active voice. When, therefore, in connection with an active verb, a 
past act of its subject is to be expressed by the participle, the per- 
fect participle passive must be used, and hence, the object of the act 
must be introduced as a new subject, which, having no dependence 
on any word in the sentence, must under the rule, be put in the abla- 
live absolute. Thus, in English we say. Caesar having sent forward 
the Cavalry, followed with all his forces. There being no perfect 
participle in Latin corresponding to "having sent," which would 
agree with Caesar in the nominative case, this clause must be chang- 
ed into the passive form,* thus, Ccesar, equitatu praemisso, subseque- 
batur, &c. literally, Caesar, the cavalry being sent before, follow- 
ed, &c. 

As the perfect participle of deponent verbs has an active significa- 
tion, it is not necessary to resort to such a change in the use of them. 
Thus, Caesar hcec locutus concilium dimisit, Ci Ccesar having said 
these things, dismissed the council." With the participle of a verb, 
not deponent, the passive form and the ablative would be used thus; 
Ccesar his dictis concilium dimisit, &c. " Caesar, these things being 
said, dismissed the council." — The first of these expressions, besides 
being more direct, is also much more definite, for here, there is no 
doubt as to who said the things referred to, but in the second it is 
left in doubt, whether the things referred to were spoken by Ccesar 
or by some other. This doubt can be removed only by the context, or 
by express mention of the doer, which is not often done. In the fol- 
lowing sentence the two forms are combined. Ccesar omnium remo- 
tis equis, cohort itus suos pradium commisit. — So, JLgros Remorum 
depopulati, omnibus vicis aedificiisque incensis. Cses, 



260 SYNTAX. GERUNDS, § 147 

Note. — A few instances occur in which this construction is used when there 
is no change of subject, and where a different case would have expressed the 
same thing ; thus, Legio ex castris Varronis, adstante et inspectante ipso, for 
adstantis et adspectantis ipsius. 

Obs. 9. The ablative absolute in the case of deponent, as well as 
of other verbs, is used to indicate the order and connection of events 
narrated, as in the above examples; or to mark the time of an action by 
reference to that of another action,- as, Pythagoras Tarquinio Superbo 
regnante, in Italiam venit, Pythagoras came into Italy in the reign of 
Tarquin the Proud. In all such cases, it is equivalent to the subjunc- 
tive with a connective word. Thus, his dictis in the former example, 
is equivalent to quum hcec dixisset — Tarquinio superbo regnante, to 
quum Tarquinius Superbus regnaret; and so of others. 

Obs. 10. The verb sum having no present participle, two nouns, or 
a noun and adjective, are used in the case absolute without a partici- 
ple, which is supplied in English by the word being; thus, se duce, 
" he being leader;" se consul e, u he being consul," or, ^ in his con- 
sulship;" So, C Duillio et Cn. Cornelio JLsina consulibus. 

Obs. 11. Some word, phrase, or clause of a sentence, sometimes 
supplies the place of the substantive, and has a participle with it in 
the ablative; as, Nondum comperto, quamregionem hostes petissent; 
Audlto Barium appropinquare; Vale dicto, &c. 

Obs. 12. Sometimes the noun is understood as, Parto quod avebas. 
Sometimes a plural substantive is joined with a singular participle; 
as, Nobis prcesente. For the construction of Gerundives, see next 
section. 



§ 147. GERUNDS AND GERUNDIVES. 

The Gerund is a verbal noun in the singular number, governed in 
its cases as other nouns, and having the same power of Government 
as the verb. As, therefore, the rules which apply to the government 
of nouns and verbs, apply to the gerund, it is unnecessary to repeat 
them here. All that is peculiar to the construction of the gerund, is 
comprised in the following Rules and Observations. 

Rule LXL The gerund, as the subject of the 
verb Est, implies necessity, and governs the da- 
tive: as, 

Norn. Legendum est mihi, Reading is to me, i. e. I must read. 

Norn. Moriendum est omnibus, Dying is to all, i. e. all must die. 
Ace. Scio moriendum esse mihi, I know that dying is to me, i. e. that 

I must die. 

EXPLANATION.— In the first and second example, the gerund is in the nomi- 
native case,* and is the subject of est, by Rule IV. In the third example it is 

* Some Grammarians who regard the gerund as a verbal noun, speak of it as 
such only in the oblique eases. They think that the nominative of the verbal 
is supplied by the infinitive mood, ana that what is called the nominative of the 
gerund, is really the jaeuter of the participle in dus, in a passive sense, joined 



§ 147 SYNTAX. GERUNDS, ETC. 261 

in the accusative, and is the subject of esse, by Rule LVIII. The necessity 
implied in this construction, is stronger than that expressed by the participle 
in dus. Litera Scribendcz sunt mihi, is simply (( a letter is to be written," or 
(l should be written by me;" but Scribendum est mihi literas, is, {( I must write 
a letter," § 79. 9. 

Obs. 1. The dative after the gerund in this construction, is often 
understood j as orandum est (sc. tibi) ut sit sana mens in corpore sano. 

Obs. 2. The gerund in di, of the genitive case, is govern- 
ed by substantives or adjectives as, 

Tempus legendi, Time of reading, § 106. Rule VI. 

Cupldus discendi, Desirous of learning, § 107. Rule IX. 

Obs. 3, The gerund in do, of the dative case, is governed 
by adjectives signifying usefulness or fitness ; as, 
Charta utilis scribendo, Paper useful for writing, § 111. Rule XVI. 

Sometimes it is governed by verbs; as, Adesse scribendo. Cic. Ap* 
tat habendo ensem. Virg. Is finis censendo /actus est. 

Obs. 4. The gerund in dum, of the accusative case, when 
not the subject of the infinitive, is governed by the preposi- 
tions, ad, inter, &c. $ as, 

Inter docendum, In time of teaching. 

Obs. 5. The gerund in do, of the ablative case, is govern- 
ed by the prepositions a, ab, de, e, ex, or in; as, 

Pcena a peccando absterret, Punishment frightens from sinning-. 

Or without a preposition, as the ablative of manner, or 
cause 1 as, 

Memoria excolendo augetur, The memory is improved by exercising it. 
Defessus sum ambulando, I am wearied with walking. 

Obs. 6. The gerund as a verbal noun, resembles the infinitive, and 
is often put for it; as, Est tempus legendi or leg&re. The gerund, how- 
ever, is never joined with an adjective, and is sometimes taken in a 
passive sense; as, Cum Tisidium vocaretur adimperandum, to receive 
orders. Urit videndo, i. e. dum vidMur, by being seen, 



with the verb est, used impersonally. Thus Studendum est mihi, they think 
should be literally rendered "It is to be studied by me. ,; Though this solutionis 
plausible, and would seem to answer in many cases, there are others in 
which we, at least, cannot see how it could be applied. It cannot be applied 
unless the participle in dus in all cases has, or may have a passive sense ; but 
of this there is no evidence, and facts are opposed to it. Thus, it will hardly 
be admitted as a literal rending of moriendum est omnibus, to say (i it is to be 
died by all,' 7 and it certainly cannot be so used in those examples in which it 
governs the same case that it does in its active sense 5 thus, Vtrum pace nobis 
an bello esset utendum. Cic, Qutimsuo cuique judicio, utendum sit. Indeed, the 
fact that gerunds, in all cases, do govern the case of their own verb, seems to 
be opposed to their being considered as parts of the passive participle in dus. 



SYNTAX. GERUNDS, ETC. § 147 

CONSTRUCTION OF GERUNDIVES. 

Rule LXII. Gerunds governing the accusative, 
are elegantly turned into gerundives in dus, which 
with the sense of the gerund, instead of govern- 
ing, agree with their substantive in gender, num- 
ber, and case ; as, 

Gerund, Tempus petendi pucem, l^^^ ,- «««i,:«„ ^««„« 

Gerundive, Tempus petenda pacis\ I Time of seekm 2 P eace ' 
Gerund, Ad petendum pacem, > T k - 

Gerundive, Ad petendam pacem, $ l ° seeJan § P eace - 
Gerund, A petendo pacem, ) ^ , •. 

Gerundive, A peUnda pace, I From seekm - peace ' 
EXPLANATION.— This rule applies only to the oblique cases. In the first 
of the above examples, the Gerund petendi is governed in the genitive by tem- 
pus according to Rule VI. and then governs pacem in the accusative by Rule 
XX. In the gerundive form, the genitive pacts is governed by tempus, by Rule 
VI. and the gerundive petendce agrees with it by Rule II. In the gerund form the 
gerund is governed, and then governs the noun. In the gerundive form, the 
noun is governed, and then the gerundive agrees with it by R. II. In order to 
change from the gerund to the gerundive, it is necessary only to change the 
accusative of the noun, into the case of the of the gerund, and then make the 
gerundive agree with it ; and from the gerundive to the gerund, change the 
noun into the accusative and the gerundive into the gerund, in the same case 
as before. 

The following are examples to be changed, 
Gen. Consilia urbis delendce, civium trucidandorum, nominis Romani 

extinguendi. 
Dat. Perpetiendo labori idoneus; — Capessendce reipublicee habilis ; — 

Natus miserias ferendo s — ad miserias ferendas ; — oneri fer* 

endo aptus. 
Ace. and Ab. Ad defendendam Romam ; Ab oppugnando Capuam ; 

&d collocandum signa ; In diripiendis castris, 

Obs. 7. Instead of the gerundive in the genitive plural, to agree 
with a noun in that case, the gerund in the genitive singular is often 
retained, probably for the sake of Euphony ; as, Fuit exemplorum 
dig endi potest as. Cic. Facultas agrorum condonandi, instead of eli* 
gmdorum condonundorum. Also, sometimes when the noun is singu 
Tar and and feminine ; as, ejus (sc. fern.) videndi cupidus. Ter. 

Obs. 8. The gerunds of verbs, which do not govern the accusative 
are never changed into the gerundive, except those of medeor, utor t 
abutor, fruor, fungor, and potior ; as, Spes potiundi urbe, or potiunda 
urbis, but we always say Cupidus subveniendi tibi, and never tui. 



§ 148 SYNTAX. SUPINES. 263 

§ 148. CONSTRUCTION OF SUPINES. 

1. The Supine in -um. 

Rule LXIIL The supine in um is put after a 
verb of motion; as, 

Abiit deambuldtum, He hath gone to walk 

So, DucZre cohortes prceddtum. Liv. Nuncvenis irrisum domimim? 
Quod in rem tuam optimum factu arbitror, te id admonitum venio. 
Plant. 

Obs. 1. The supine in um is elegantly joined with the verb eo, to 
express the signification of any verb more strongly ; as, It se perditum, 
the same with id agit, or opZram dat, ut se perdat. He is bent on his 
own destruction. Ter. This supine with iri, taken impersonally sup- 
plies the pla9e of the future infinitive passive ; as, An credebas iU 
lamsinetuaopZra iri deductum domum ? Which may be thus resolved ; 
An credebas iri ( a te, or ab allquo) deductum (i. e. ad deducendum) 
illam domum. Ter. The supine here may be considered as a verbal 
substantive governing the accusative, like the gerund. 

Obs. 2. The supine in um is put after other verbs besides verbs of 
motion ; as, Dedit filiam nuptum ; Cantatum provocemus, Ter. Re* 
vocdtus defensum patriam ; JDivlsit copias hiemdtum. Nep. 

Obs. 3. The meaning of this supine may be expressed by several 
other parts of the verb ; as, Venit ordtum opem: or 1. Venit opem 
or audi causa, or opis orandce. 2, Venit ad orandum opem } or ad or an* 
dam opem. 

2. The Supine in -u. 

Rule LXIV. The supine in u is put after an 
adjective noun ; as, 

Facile dictu, Easy to tell, or to be told. 

So, Nihil dictu fcedum, visuque, heec limina tangat, intra quce puer 
est. Juv. Difficilis res est inventu verus amicus ; Fas est, or nefas est 
dictu ; Opus est scitu. Cic. 

Obs. 4. The supine in u, being used in a passive sense, hardly ever 
governs any case. It is sometimes, especially in old writers, put af- 
ter verbs of motion ; as, Nunc obsondtu redeo, from getting provisions, 
Plaut. Primus cubitu surgat (villicus,) prostremus cubitum eat. "Let 
the overseer be the first to rise, and the last to go to bed." Cato. 

Obs. 5. This supine may be rendered by the infinitive or gerund 
with the preposition ad; as, Difficile cognitu, cognosci, ox ad cognos* 
cendum ; Resfacilisad credendum. Cic. 

Obs. 6. The supines being nothing else but verbal nouns of the 
fourth declension, used only in the accusative and ablative singular, 
are governed in these cases by prepositions understood ; the supine 
in um by the preposition ad } and the supine in u by the preposition in. 



264 SYNTAX. CONJUNCTIONS. § 149 

$ 149. CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

Rule LXV. The conjunctions et, ac, atque, nee, 
neque, aut, vel, and some others, couple similar cases 
and moods ; as, 

Honor a pair em et matrem, Honor father and mother. 
Nee legit nee scribit. He neither reads nor writes. 

EXPLANATION.— Words coupled by a conjunction under this rule are in the 
same construction, i. e. two nominatives coupled together are the subject of 
the same verb, or predicates of the same subject ; and nouns coupled together 
in the oblique cases are governed by the same word, as in the first example* 
Verbs thus coupled have the same subject or nominative, as in the second ex 
ample. 

Obs. 1. The copulative conjunctions under this rule are such as et, 
ac, atque, etiam, que; the disjunctives nee, neque, aut, vel, seu, sive, 
ve, neve, neu; also quam, prceterquam, nisi, an, nempe, quamvis, ne- 
dum, sed, autem, verum, and in general such connectives as do not im- 
ply a dependence of the following, on the preceding clause. 

Obs. 2. These conjunctions connect not only words but also clauses 
whose construction is the same, i.e. whose subjects are in the same 
case, and their verbs in the same mood ; as, Concidunt venti, fu» 
giuntque nubes. 

Obs. 3. Words in the same construction are sometimes in a different 
case : Still they are coupled by the above conjunctions ; thus, Mea 
et reipublicce interest. Here, mea and reipublic.ee though in different 
cases are in the same construction by Rule XVIII. Exc. I. So, 
constitit asse et pluris, Rule XLIV. Vir magni ingenii, summdque in- 
dustries, Rule VII. &c. The subjunctive being often used for the im- 
perative is sometimes coupled with it ; as; Disce nee invideas. 

Obs. 4. The indicative and subjunctive may be connected in this 
manner, if the latter does not depend on the former. 

Obs. 5. When two words coupled together have each a conjunction 
such as, et, aut, vel, sive, nee, &c. without being connected with a pre- 
ceding word the first et is rendered both or likewise ; the first aut or 
vel, by either ; the first sive, by whether, and the first nee or neque by 

neither. So, also, turn. ...turn, and cum turn, not only. ...but 

also ; or both and. And so of others : as, nunc nunc ; jam, 

• . . .jam, &c. In such cases the conjunctive before the first word ren- 
ders it more emphatic: turn, . ..turn, often mean, u at one time. . . .at 
another time." 

Obs. 6. After words expressing similarity or dissimilarity, ac and 
at que signify u as;" and " than ; M as, Facis ac si me roges, u You 
do as if you should ask me." Me colit seque atque patronum suum, " He 
shews me as much attention as,' } &c. Si aliter scribo ac sentio, " If I 
write otherwise than I think." 

Obs. 7. Conjunctions that do not imply doubt and contingency; are 
usually joined with the indicative mood ; those which do imply doubt, 
contingency and dependence, are for the most part joined with the 
subjunctive. § 140. Obs. 1. 2, 3. 



§ 150 SYNTAX. FIGURES. 265 

§ 150. FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 

A Figure is a manner of speaking different from the regular 
and ordinary construction, used for the sake of beauty or force. 

The figures of Syntax or construction, may be reduced to four, El- 
lipsis, Pleonasm, Enalldge, and Hyperbaton, Of these, the first, and 
second, and third, respect the constituent parts of a sentence, the 
fourth respects only the arrangement of words. 

1. Ellipsis, is the omission of one or more words necessary 
to complete the sense ; as, 

Jlwnt,ferunt,&Lc. sc. homines. Ab er ant bidui, sc. iter, or itinera. 
Quid multa ? sc. dicam. Under this may be comprehended, 

1st. Asyndeton, or the omission of a conjunction ; as, veni, vidi, 
vici. JDeus optimus, maximus, sc. et. 

2d. Zeugma is the uniting of two nouns or infinitives to a verb 
which is applicable only to one of them ; as, Pacem an bellum 
gerens. Sail, where gerens is applicable to bellum only. In 
this way, nego is sometimes used with two propositions, one of 
which is affirmative ; as, Negant Ccesarcm mansurum, postu* 
lataque interposita esse : i.e. dicuntque postuldta. 

3d, Syllepsis is when an adjective or a verb belonging to two or 
more nouns of different genders, persons, or numbers, agrees 
with one rather than another. See examples § 98. Obs. 2. 3. 

4th, Synechdocheis the use of an accusative of the part affected in- 
stead of an ablative ; as, Expleri mentem nequit. Virg. 
§ 128. Exc. 

2. Pleonasm, is using a greater number of words than is 
necessary to express the meaning , as, 

Sic ore locuta est, u thus she spoke with her mouth." Virg. Under 
this are included, 

1st. Polysyndeton, or a redundancy of conjunctions ; as, Una Eurus 
que Notusque ruunt. Virg. 

2d. Hendiddys, or the expression of an idea, by two nouns connect- 
ed by a conjunction, instead of a noun limited by anadject.or 
genitive ; as, Pateris libamus et auro, " We offer a libation 
from cups and from gold," instead of pateris aureis, from 
golden cups. 

3d. Periphrasis or a circuitous mode of expression ; as, Teneri 
fcetus ovium, " the tender young of the sheep," instead of ag- 
ni, lambs. 

3. Enallage, is a change of words, or a change of one 
gender, number, case, person, tense, mood, or voice of the same 
word for another. It includes, 

1st. Antimeria or the using of one part of speech for another ; as, 
nostrum vivere, for nostra vita; conjugium videbit, for conju- 
gem, &c. 

23 



266 SYNTAX. — LATIN ARRANGEMENT. § 151 

2d. Heterosis , or the using of one form of a noun, pronoun, or verb 
for another j as, Romanus prcelio victor, for Romani victores. 
Truncus me sustulerat, for sustulisset. Hor. 

3d. Antiptosis, or the using of one case for another ; as cui nunc 
cognomen Iulo for lulus. Virg. § 97. Exc. 2. and 114. Obs. 
5. Uxor invicti Jovis esse nescis, for te esse uxorem. Hor. See 
§ 145. Obs. 3. 

4th. SynZsis or Synthesis, is adapting the construction to the sense of 
a word rather than to its gender or number ; as, Concursus popu- 
li mirantium; — Pars in crucem acti ) — scelus qui, &c. § 88. Exc, 
Land §99. Exc. 1. 

5th. Anacoluthon, or a departure in the end of a sentence, from 
the construction with which it commenced. Thus, Nam nos 

omnes, quibus est alicunde aliquis objectus labos lucro 

est. Here the writer began as if he intended to say lucro ha- 
bemus, and ended as if he had said nobis omnibus. As it is 5 
the nominative nos has no verb, and est, which in such sen- 
tences requires the dative of a person, is without it. 

4. Hypebbaton, is a transgression of the usual order of 
words or clauses. It includes, 

1st. Anastrophe, or an inversion of the order of two words ,• as, 
Transtra per et remos, for per transtra, &c. ; — Collo dare bra* 
chia circum, for circumddre, &c. 
2d. HystZron proteron, or reversing the naturaforder of the sense ; 
as, Moriamur et in media arma ruamus. Virg. Valet atque 
vivit, Ter. 
3d. Hypallage or an interchange of constructions ; as, In novafert 
animus mutatas dicere formas corpora, for corpora mutata in 
novas formas. Dare classibus Ausiros, for dare classes Austris. 
4th. Tmesis, or separating the parts of a compound word ; as, 
Septem subjecta trionigens, for Septentrioni. Virg. Quce me 
cunque vocant terrce for qucecunque, &c. 
5th. Parenthesis, the insertion of a word or clause in a sentence 
which interrupts the natural connection ; as, Tityre dum redeo 
(brevis est via,) pasce capellas. Virg. 
To these may be added, 

Archaism, which in Syntax means the use of ancient 
forms of construction ; as, Operam abutitur, for opera. Ter. 
Quid tibi hanc curatio est rem ? 

Hellenism or the use of Greek constructions ; as, Absti- 
nUo i? 9 drum 1 for iris. Hor. Tempus desist ere pugnce, for 
pugnd. Virg. 



§ 151. LATIN ARRANGEMENT. 

In alllanguages, the arrangement of words in a sentence is different] 
and all, it is probable, consider the order of arrangement in their own 
lansuase the most natural, being that to which they have themselves 



§ 151 SYNTAX.— LATIN ARRANGEMENT. 267 

been most accustomed. In a language like the English, 7 however, 
the words of which have but few changes of form or termination, 
much more depends on their position in a sentence than in those lan- 
guages which are able, by the changes of form only, to indicate 
the relation of words to each other, however they may be arranged. 
Thus when we say in English, "Alexander conquered Darius," if 
we change the order of the words we necessarily change the mean- 
ing also ; as, Darius conquered Alexander. But whether we say in 
Latin, Alexander vicit Darium, or Darium vicit .Alexander, or Alex- 
ander Darium vicit, or Darium Alexander vicit, or place these words 
in any other possible order of arrangement, the meaning is the 
same and cannot be mistaken; because it depends, not on the po- 
sition, but on the form of the words. This gave the Latin writer 
much more scope to arrange his words in that order which would 
best promote the strength or euphony of the sentence, without en- 
dangering its perspicuity. Still even in Latin, custom has established 
a certain order of arrangement which is considered the best. And 
though no certain rules can be given on this subject, which are ap- 
plicable to every instance, the following general principles and Rules 
may be noticed. 

General principles of Latin Arrangement. 

1. The word governed is placed before the word which 
governs it. 

2. The word agreeing is placed after the word with which 
it agrees. More particularly, 

Rule I. The subject is generally put before the verb; as, 
Deus mundum gubernat. 

Exc. 1. When the subject is closely connected with a clause fol- 
lowing the verb, it is placed after the verb -, as, erant omnlno duo iti» 
nera, quibus, &c. 

Exc. 2. When the subject is emphatic, it usually follows the verb 
and concludes the sentence. 

Rule II. The adjective or participle most commonly fol- 
lows the substantive with which it agrees. 

With few exceptions, however, the place of the adjective 
or participle is entirely arbitrary. The following usages may 
be noticed. 

1st. The adjectives primus, medius, ultimus, extremus, summus, in* 
fxmus, imus, supremus, reliquus, cceterus, denoting the first part, 
the middle part, &c. are generally put before the substantive ; 
as, summus mons-, Extremo libro, the top of the mountain, &c. 

2d. When the substantive governs another in the genitive, the ad- 
jective generally precedes both ; as, Duo Platonis precept a, 

3d. When the substantive is governed by a preposition, the adjee- 
jective is frequently put before the substantive ,* as, H&c in 
questione ; magna in parte. 



268 SYNTAX. LATIN ARRANGEMENT. § 151 

4th. The adjective is often put before the substantive for the sake 

of Euphony. 
5th. Is, Me, hie, iste, are generally placed before the substantive, 

and, if used substantively, are placed before the participle. 

Rule III. The relative is commonly placed after, and as 
near as possible to its antecedent. 

Obs. 1. The relative is commonly the first word of its own clause, 
and when it stands for et Me, et hie, et is, or for these pronouns with- 
out et. § 99. Obs. 8. it is always first. Sometimes, however, the 
relative and its clause precede the antecedent and its clause. 

Rule IV. The governing word is generally placed after 
the word governed ; as, Carthaginiensium dux — laudis avi- 
dus — Romanorum ditissimus — hostem fudit^ &c. Hence, 

Obs. 2. The finite verb is commonly the last in its own clause. To 
this, however, there are many exceptions. 

Rule V. Adverbs are generally introduced before the 
word which they are intended to modify $ as, Leviter cegro- 
tantes, leniter airant. Cic. 

Rule VI. Conjunctions generally introduce the clause to 
which they belong ; as, At si dares ; Sed profecto in omni 
re fortuna dominatur. 

Exc. 1. The enclitics que, ve, ne, are always annexed — the two first, 
to the latter of the two words which they serve to connect ,• as, JLlbus 
aterve. Cic. Bonimalique; — and the last, to the subject which the 
question chiefly regards, thus, Loquarne? " Shall I speak ?" E gone 
loquar? " Shall J speak?" 

Exc. 2. The conjunctions Autem, enim, vero, qufique, quidem, are 
always placed after the introductory word of the clause generally in 
the second place, and sometimes in the third. Etiam, igitur, and 
tamen, more frequently in the second and third place than in the first. 

Rule VII. Words connected in sense, should be as close 
as possible to each other, and the words of one clause should 
never be mixed with those of another. 

Rule VIII. Circumstances, viz : the " cause," the " man- 
ner," the "instrument," the " time," the " place," &c. are 
put before the predicate 5 as, 

Eumferro occidi; Ego te ob egregiam virtuiem semper amavi 

Rule IX. The proper name should precede the name of 
rank or profession ; as Cicero orator. 

Rule X. The Vocative should either introduce the sen- 
tence, or be placed among the first words 5 as, Credo vo$, 
judices. 



§152 



SYNTAX, ANALYSIS. 269 



Rule XL When there is an antithesis, the words chiefly 
opposed to each other should be as close together as possi- 
ble 5 as, Appetis pecuniam, virtutem abjicis. 

Rule XII. Dependent clauses, as well as single words, are 
placed before the principal finite verb upon which they chiefly 
depend. 

Rule XIII. As a general rule, where the case will admit, 
it is proper to proceed from shorter to longer words, and 
from shorter to longer clauses and members of a sentence, 
as we advance towards the close. 

Hence, it will follow, that a sentence should not conclude 
with a monosyllable, when it can be avoided. 

Remark. These, however, are to be considered as but general rules, subject 
to many modifications, and exceptions, according to the taste of different wri- 
ters. However, as a general guide, with close attention to classical usage and 
euphony, they may be of use to enable the student to avoid errors on this sub- 
ject. 



§ 152. RESOLUTION OR ANALYSIS. 

Every simple sentence consists of two parts, the subject and the 
predicate, § 94. 6. 7. 8. In analyzing a sentence, it is necessary to 
distinguish between the Grammatical subject and predicate, and the 
Logical subject and predicate. 

The Grammatical subject is the name or thing spoken of, without, 
or separated from, all modifying words or clauses, and which stands 
as the nominative to the verb, or the accusative before the infinitive. 

The Logical subject is the same word in connection with the quali- 
fying or restricting expressions, which go to make up the full and 
precise idea of the thing spoken of. 

The Grammatical 'predicate is the word or words containing the 
simple affirmation, made respecting the subject. 

The Logical predicate is the grammatical predicate combined with 
all those words or expressions that modify or restrict it in any way; 
thus: 

In the sentence, "An inordinate desire of admiration often produc- 
es a contemptible levity of deportment;" the Grammatical subject is 
"desire;" the Logical "An inordinate desire of admiration." The 
Grammatical predicate is "produces," the Logical, "produces often 
a contemptible levity of deportment." 

In Latin and English, the general arrangement of a sentence is the 
same, i. e. the sentence commonly begins with the subject and ends 
with the predicate. But the order of the words in each of these parts, 
is usually so different in Latin, from what it is in English, that one 
of the first difficulties a beginner has to encounter with a La- 
tin sentence, is to know how " to take it in," or to arrange it in the 

21* 



270 syntax.— Analysis. § 152 

order of the English. This is technically called construing or giving 
the order. To assist in this, some advantage may be found by care- 
fully attending to the following 

DIRECTIONS FOR' BEGINNERS. 

Direct. 1. As all the other parts of a sentence depend 
upon the two leading parts, namely, the subject or NOMI- 
NATIVE, and the predicate or VERB 5 the first thing to 
be done with every sentence, is to find out these. In order 
to this, 

First. Look for the leading verb, which is always in the 
present, imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, or future of the indi- 
cative, or in the imperative mood, # and usually at or near the 
end of the sentence. 

Second. Having found the verb, observe its number and 
person ; this will aid in finding its nominative, which is a 
noun or pronoun in the same number and person w r ith the 
verb, commonly before it, and near the beginning of the sen- 
tence, though not always so, § 151. R. I. with exceptions. 

Direct. 2. Having thus found the nominative and verb, 
and ascertained their meaning, the sentence may be resolved 
from the Latin into the English order, as follows : 

1st. Take the Vocative, Exciting, Introductory, or con* 
necting words, if there are any. 

2d. The NOMINATIVE. 

3d. Words limiting or explaining, i. e. words agreeing 
with it, or governed by it, or by one another, where they are 
found, till you come to the verb. 

4th. The VERB. 

5th. Words limiting or explaining it, i. e. words which 
modify it, are governed by it, or depend upon it. 

6th. Supply everywhere the words understood. 

7th. If the sentence be compound, take the parts of it se- 
verally as they depend one upon another, proceeding with 
each of them as above. 

Direct. 3. In arranging the words for translation, in the 
subordinate parts of a sentence, observe the following 

* All the other parts of the verb are generally used in subordinate clauses. So, 
also, is the pluperfect indicative. In oblique discourse, the leading verb is in 
the infinitive, § 141. Rule V. 



§ 152 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS. 271 

RULES FOR CONSTRUING. 

I. An oblique case, or the infinitive mood, is put after the 
word that governs it. 

Exc. The relative and interrogative are usually put before the 
governing word, unless that be a preposition; if it is, then after it. 

II. An adjective, if no other word depend upon it or be 
coupled with it, is put before its substantive ; but if ano- 
ther word depend upon it, or be governed by it, it is usu- 
ally placed after it. 

III. The participle is usually construed after its substan- 
tive, or the word with which it agrees. 

IV. The relative and its clause, should, if possible, come 
immediately after the antecedent. 

V. When a question is asked, the nominative comes after 
the verb; (in English between the auxiliary and the verb.) 
Interrogative words, however, such as quis, quotas, quantus, 
titer, &c. come before the verb. 

VI. After an active verb, always look for an accusative, — 
and after a preposition, for an accusative or ablative, and ar- 
range the words accordingly. 

VII. Words in apposition must be construed as near to- 
gether as possible. 

VIII. Adverbs, adverbial phrases, prepositions with their 
cases, circumstances of time, place, cause, manner, instru- 
ment, &c. should be placed, in general, after the words which 
they modify. The case absolute commonly before them, and 
often first in the sentence. 

IX. The words of different clauses must not be mixed to- 
gether, but each clause translated by itself, in its order, ac- 
cording to its connection with, or dependence upon, those to 
which it is related. 

X. Conjunctions to be placed before the last of two words* 
or sentences connected. 

Examples of Resolution. 

First. Etenim omnes artes, quae ad humanitatem pertinent, 
habent quoddam commune vinculum, et quasi cognatione 
quadam inter se continentur. Cic. 

1. In looking over this sentence, according to Direction 1 
we find the first leading verb to be habent, which must have a 
plural nominative. This leads us at once to artes, as the no- 



272 SYNTAX. ANALYSIS. § 152 

minative. The nominative and verb being thus found on 
which the other parts depend, then, 

2. By direction second, the general arrangement will be, 

1. Connective word, Etenim. 

2. NOMINATIVE, « artaJ\ 

3. Words limiting and explaining, omnes, quce ad huma- 

nitatem 'pertinent. 

4. The VERB, habent. 

5.*Words governed by it, quoddam commune vinculum. 

3. Then by the rules in direction 3, the words in each of 
these divisions, will be arranged thus. 1. Etenim; 2. and 3. 
omnes artes, (R. II.) quce, (R. III.) pertinent ad humani- 
tatem, (R. VIII.) 4. habent , 5. quoddam commune vincu- 
lum, (R. II.) 

By proceeding in the same manner with the next clause, 
the whole will then stand thus ; 

Etenim omnes artes, quaa pertinent ad humanitatem, ha- 
bent quoddam commune vinculum, et continentur inter se 
quasi quadam cognatione ; — and may be translated as follows : 

" For all the arts which pertain to liberal knowledge, (ci- 
vilization,) have a certain common bond, and are connected 
together as if by a certain affinity between them." 

The pupil will now see, that in the first clause, or simple 
sentence, the Grammatical subject is artes; the Logical — omnes 
artes qua ad humanitatem pertinent. — The Grammatical pre- 
dicate is habent; the Logical — habent quoddam commune vin- 
culum; and so with the next clause. 

In like manner proceed with every new simple sentence, 
or with every succeeding clause of a compound sentence. 

Example Second. 

Justum et tenacem propositi virum 
Non civium ardor prava jubentium, 
Norl vultus instantis tyranni 
Mente quatit solida. 

1. Here again, by Direction 1, we find the leading verb 
to be quatit, and its nominative ardor. 2. Then, as before, 

1. Connecting words — none. 

2. The NOMINATIVE, ardor. ^ 

3. Limiting words, civium jubentium prava. 
2. A second NOMINATIVE, vultus. 



§ 153 SYNTAX. PARSING- 273 

3. Limiting words, instantis tyranni. 

4. VERB, quatit. 

5. Words modifying and governed by it, non — mente 
solidd justum et t end cem propositi virum. 

3. By the rules in Direction third, then the order will stand 
thus. Ardor civium, (R. I.) jubentium, (R. III.) prava (sc. 
negotia, R. I. and II.) Again, Vultus instantis tyranni, 
(R. I. and II.) non quatit solida mente, (R. VIII. and II.) 
virum, (R. I.) justum ettenacem, (R. II.) propositi, (R. I.) i. e. 

Ardor civium jubentium prava (negotia), vultus instantis 
tyranni, non quatit solida mente virum justum et tenacem 
propositi 

§ 153. ETYMOLOGICAL AND SYNTACTICAL 
PARSING. 

Having arranged and translated a sentence, the next thing 
is to parse it, in doing which, every word should be fully de- 
scribed by its accidents, traced to its primitive, if a deriva- 
tive, — analyzed into its parts if compound, and its concord 
or government pointed out. The following scheme, with 
each part of speech, may be useful to the beginner. 

1. Noun. — 1. kind 5 2. Gender; 3. Declension; 4. De- 
cline ; 5. Derived from (if derived ; ) 6. it is found in 

Case; 7. Number; 8. is the nominative to (if the nominative) 
is governed by — (if governed) 9. Rule. 

2. Adjective. — -1. Declension; 2. Decline it; 3. com- 
pare it (if compared ;) 4. It is found in — Case ; 5. Number ; 
6. Gender ; 7. agrees with — 8. Rule. 

3. Pronoun. — 1. kind; (i. e. personal, relative, or adjec- 
tive,) 2. Decline it; then, 

If personal, 3. Person; 4. found in — Case; 5. Number; 
6. Reason of the case ; 7. Rule ; 8. stands for — 

If a Relative pronoun, 3. found in — Case ; 4. Number ; 
5. Reason of the case ; 6. Rule ; 7. Its antecedent ; 8. Rule. 

If an Adjective pronoun ; then, 3. Kind, (L e. possessive, 
indefinite, demonstrative, &c.) 4. It is found in — Case; 5. 
Number ; 6. Gender ; 7. Agrees with ; 8. Rule. 

4. Verb. — 1. Kind, (i. e. Active or Neuter, or if prefer- 
red, Transitive or Intransitive,) 2. Conjugation, (or Irregu- 
lar if it is so,) 3. Conjugate it; 4. derived from, (if deriv- 






274 SYNTAX. PARSING. § 153 

ed ;) 5. Compounded of— (if compounded,) 6. It is found in 
— Tense; 7. Mood; 8. Voice ; 9. Person; 10. Number; 11. 
agrees with — as its subject ; 12. Rule ; 13. give a Synopsis. 

5. Adverb. — 1. Derived from, (if derived,) 2. Compound- 
ed of, (if compounded,) 3. Compared, (if compared,) 4* It 
modifies ; 5. Rule. 

6. Preposition. — 1. Governs case; 2. Rule; 3. It 

points out the relation between and 

7. Interjection. — 1. Kind; 2. Governs, or is put with 
the case ; 3. Rule. 

8. Conjunction.— 1. Kind; — 2. Connects 3. Rule. 

Example of Parsing by the foregoing Scheme. 

The first of the above examples may serve as an example 
of Etymological and Syntactical parsing, and for this purpose 
we arrange it in the order of translation, as above. 

" Etenim omnes artes, quae pertinent ad humanitatem 
habent quoddam commune vinculum, et continentur inter se 
quasi quadam eognatione." 

Etenim, conjunction, casual, connecting the following sen- 
tence with the preceding, as containing the cause or reason 
of what is there stated. 

Omnes, An adjective, 3d decl. omnis, -is, -e, &c. not com- 
pared, because incapable of increase, — in the nom. pi. fern, 
and agrees with artes, (Rule,) "An adjective agrees," &c. 

Artes, A noun (or substantive,) fern. 3d (decl.) ars, % artis, 
&c. — in the nom. pi. — the nom. to (or, subject of,) habent. 

Qua, Rel. pron. — in the nom. pi. fern. nom. to pertinent 
and agrees with its antecedent artes, Rule III. 

Pertinent, Verb neuter (or intransitive,) 2d (conj.) 
pertineo, -ere, -ui, pertentum ; compounded of per, and 
teneo, — in the pres. ind. act. 3d. (pers.) pi. and agrees with 
quce. Rule III. "A verb agrees," &c. 

Ad, Preposition, governs the ace. shews the relation be- 
tween pertinent and humanitatem. 

Humanitatem, Noun, fern. 3d, humanitas, — atis, &c. 
Abstract, derived from humanus. § 6. 22. in the ace. sing. 

*As all nouns are common except proper nouns. To save time in parsing this 
may always be taken for granted, mentioning, however; when the noun is 
proper. For the same reason the words, " declension, ;; <-gender, 7J u number," 
\ l conjugation, ' ; "mood," il tense," maybe ommitted, these being sufficiently 
indicated by the words masculine, singular, indicative. &c. 



§ 153 SYNTAX. — PARSING. 275 

governed by ad. Rule XL VIII. "Twenty-eight preposi- 
tions," &e. 

Habent, Verb act. (or Transitive,) 2d. habeo, -ere, -m, 
-itum, — in the pres. ind. act. 3d pers. pi. — and agrees with 
artes. Rule III. " A verb agrees," &c. Synopsis. 

Quoddam, indef. adj. pron. quidam, quadarn, &c. com- 
pounded of quis and the syllable dam. — in the ace. sing, 
neut. and agrees with vinculum. Rule II. " An adjective 
agrees," &c. 

Vinculum, noun, neut. 2d. vinculum, -i, &c. — In the ace. 
sing, governed by habent. Rule XX. " A verb signifying 
actively,' 5 &c. 

Et, a conjunction, copulative, connecting continentur with 
habent, which are consequently in the same construction, 
(§ 149. Exp.) and have the same nominative artes. 

Continentur, A verb, active (or Trans.) 2d ; contineo, conti- 
nere, continui, contentum ; compounded of con and teneo. — 
in the pres. ind. pass. — 3d pers.— pi. and agrees with artes. 
Rule III. " A verb agrees," &c. Synopsis. 

Inter, a preposition which governs the accusative, and here 
points out the relation of reciprocity between the individuals 
represented by se. (§28. Obs. 5.) 

Se Substantive pron. 3d pers. — intheacc.pl. fern, governed 
by inter. Rule XL VIII. " Twenty-eight prepositions," &e. 
refers to artes, the subject of continentur , and is here taken 
reciprocally. § 28. Obs. 5. 

Quasi, An adverb of manner modifying continentur. Rule. 

Quddam, Indef. adj. pron. quidam, quadam, &c. com- 
pounded of quis and the syllable -dam — in the ablative sing, 
fern, and agrees with cognatione. Rule II. " An Adjective 
agrees," &c. 

Cognatione, A noun, fern. 3d (decl.) cognatio, -onis, &c. 
from cognatus " related by birth," (from con exi&nascor) — in 
the ablative of manner, relating to continentur inter se. Rule. 

Note. — In this way by stating every thing respecting a word in 
the shortest possible manner, and without waiting to be questioned, 
parsing may be done rapidly, and much time saved ; and then such 
questions may be put as will draw attention to any thing not included 
in the above scheme. By a little attention on the part of the 
teacher in leading the pupil to understand and apply the preceding 
rules for arranging a sentence in the order of translation, he will 
save much time and labor to himself afterwards and accustom thf; 
learner to the important lesson of reasoning out a difficult sentence 
and so by repeated victories to gain confidence in his own powers. 



276 PROSODY. QUANTITY. § 154-5 

PART FOURTH. 



PROSODY. 

Prosody in its common acceptation, treats of the quantity 
of syllables in the construction of verses ; in other words, of 
Quantity and Metre. 



§ 154. OF QUANTITY. 

Quantity means the relative length of time taken up in 
pronouncing a syllable. 

In respect of quantity every syllable is either long or short. 
When a syllable is sometimes long and sometimes short, it is 
said to be common, 

2. The quantity of syllables is determined by certain es- 
tablished rules j or when no rule applies, — by the authority 
of the poets. 

3. The rules of quantity are either general or special. 
The former apply alike to all the syllables of a word, the lat- 
ter to particular syllables. 



§ 155. GENERAL RULES. 

Rule I. A vowel before another vowel is short; as, 
Deus, alius, nihil. 

EXPLANATION.— -This rule applies to a vowel before another 
vowel or diphthong in a different syllable, whether it be in the same, 
or in a different word. The letter h in verse, being considered as 
only a breathing, is wholly disregarded, hence such words as, nihil, mi- 
hi, ohe, &c. come under this rule. A diphthong before a vowel does 
not come under this rule, except as in Rule V. Exc. 1. 

EXPLANATIONS. 

1. A is long in air, Cat, aulai, terrai, and the like 

2. E is long after i in the genitive and dative of the fifth declen* 

sion ; as, speciei; not after i, it is common. 
E is long in eheu, Pompei. 






§ 155 PROSODY. QUANTITY. 277 

8. I not before er, is long in fio-, as,/io, fiebam. Also in alius 
the genitive of alius. 
I is common in Diana, and genitives in ius ; but is short in al- 
terius. Genitives in -ius, in prose, have i long. 

4. is common in Ohe. 

5. Greek words vary. As a general rule when the vowel before 
another represents a long vowel or diphthong in the Greek word, it is 
long ; otherwise it is short. 

Rule II. A vowel before two consonants or a double con- 
sonant is long by position ; as, 

arma,fdllo, axis, gdza, major. 

EXPLANATION.— When a final syllable is long by another rule, 
this rule does not apply ; the double consonants under this rule are, 
the same consonant doubled j as, 11, It, rr, &c. and the letters j, x, 
and z, equivalent to dg, ks, ds. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

1. A short vowel in the end of a word before two consonants in 
the next is common ; before sc, sp, sq, st, it is usually long ; before a 
double consonant it is short. 

2. A vowel before j, is short in compounds of jugum as bijugus. 
Rule III. A vowel before a mute and a liquid is common ; 

as volucris, or volucris. 

EXPLANATION,— Under this rule the vowel must be naturally 
short, and the mute must come before the liquid, and be in the same 
syllable with it. But if the vowel be naturally long it remains so, 
as mdtris (from j///j<n]p ) salubris, &c. If the mute and liquid 
be in different syllables, the vowel preceding is long by position ; 
as, abluo, obruo. In Latin words the liquids are I and r only. In 
Greek words I, r. m, n. 

Obs. 1. This rule is properly an exception to Rule II. A short 
vowel in the end of a word is seldom affected by a mute and a liquid 
in the next. 

Rule IV. A contracted syllable is always long ; as, 

Nil, for nihil ; mi, for mihi ; alius, for aliius ; it for lit; sodes for si 

audes, nolo for non volo : bigcs,for bijugce ; scilicet, for scire licet, &c. 

Rule V. A diphthong is long ; as, Ccesar, Aurum, Eubcea. 

Exceptions. 

1. Prce in composition, before a vowel, is commonly short j as, 
prceire prceustus, &c. 

2. Also, <b is sometimes Short in the end of a word, when the next 
begins with a vowel; as, Insula Ionio, &c. 

Note. — U, after q and g, does not form a dipthong with a vowel 
following it, but has a force similar to the English w; as, lingua, 
queror, &c. pronounced lingwa, kweror. § 1. Obs. 3. 

24 



PROSODY. QUANTITY. § 156-7 

/ 

SPECIAL RULES. 

§ 156. FIRST AND MIDDLE SYLLABLES. 

Rule VI. Preterites of two Syllables lengthen the former 5 
as, veni, vidi, vici. 

Exc. 1. Those which are short by Rule I; as, rui, lui, &c. 
Exc. 2. Seven have the first syllable short; viz: bibi, dHi,fidi i 
(from findo,) scidi, sttti, stiti, and tiili. 

Rule VII. Preterites which double the first syllable, short- 
en the first and second ; as, Cectdi, tetzgi, pepuli, &c. from 
cado, tango, pello. 

Exc. Ce'cidi; from cado; and pepedi, have the second long. 

Rule VIII. Supines of two syllables lengthen the former 5 
as, Casum, motum, visu??i, from cado, ?noveo, video. 

Exc. Ten have the first syllable short, viz: cltum, (from ciZo,) 
datum, Itum, lltum, — quitum, ratum rutum, satum, — situm, and stdium. 

Rule IX. In polysyllables, a, e, and u, are long before 
'turn, of the Supine 5 as, Amatum, deletum, indutum. 

Rule X. In polysyllables, i is short before turn of the 
Supine; as, monltum. /is long in division. 

Exc. But Supines in itum, from preterites in ivi, have i 
long ; as, Cupivi, cwpttum, audivi, auditum, &c. 

Obs. Resenseo has recensltum, from ui in the preterite, because ori- 
ginally from censio. censivi. Eo and its compounds have i short; as, 
itum, ambitum, &c. 

Rule XL Participles in -rus, have u long in the penult ; 

as, amaturus, &c. 



§ 157. INCREMENT OF NOUNS. 

1. A noun is said to increase, when any of its cases has more sylla- 
bles than the nominative singular ; as, rex, regis; sermo, sermonis. 

2. With only few exceptions, nouns have but one increase in the 
singular number : iter, supellex, and compounds of caput in ps, have 
two; as, itintris, supellectilis, prcecipitis, from prceceps. 

3 The increment or increasing syllable, to which the following 
rules apply, is never the last syllable, but the one preceding it, if 
there be one increment; or the two preceding it, if there be two, &c. 



§ 157 PROSODY. QUANTITY. 279 

4. The rules for the increase of nouns, apply to adjectives and 
participles. 

6. Nouns of the fourth declension have no increment in the singu- 
lar; those of the first and fifth, have none but what come under Rule 
I. and its exceptions. In the second declension, those only increase 
in the singular which end in r, according to the following, 

Rule. The increment of the second declension is short 5 as, 

Pu&ri, viri, saturi, &c. from puer, vir, satur* 
Exc. But Iber and Celtiber, have Iberi and Celtiberi. 

INCREMENTS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 
Rulc XII. Increments of the third declension in a and 
are long 5 e, i, and u, short 5 as, 

Pietatis, honoris, mulieris, lapldis, murmiiris. 

Rules with Exceptions 

A. 

1. Increments in a, of the third declension, are long. 
Exc. 1st. The increment in a, from Masculines in al and ar is short, 

also from par, and its compounds; — from anas, mas, vas, 
(vadis) baccar, hepar, jubar, lar, nectar, and sal. 

Exc. 2d. The increment in a, from nouns in s, with a consonant be- 
fore it, is short,- as, Arabs, Arabis. 

Exc. 3d. The increment in a, from Greek nouns in -a, -atis; and 
as, -adis, is short; as, poema, poematis; lampas, lampddis. 

Exc. 4th. Also the following in ax, viz : abax anthrax, Atax, 
Atrax, climax, colax, cor ax, drop ax, fax, harpax , panax , 
phylax, smilax, and sty rax, increase with a short. 

o. 

2. Increments in 0, of the third declension are long. 

Exc. 1st. The increment in 0, from neuter nouns is short; as, 
marmor 3 marmoris; corpus, corporis. But os, oris, and 
neuter comparatives increase in long, Ardor has ardb 1 - 
ris, or ardor is. 

Exc. 2d. The increment in 0, from nouns in 5 with a consonant be- 
fore it is short,* as, scrobs, scrobis; inops, inopis. But 
Cercops, Cyclops, and Hydrops, have 6 long. 

Exc. 3d. Generally from Gentile and Greek nouns in 0, and on, 
the increment is short; as, Macedo, Macedonis: but some 
are Ions:, and some are common. 



280 PROSODY. QUANTITY. § 157 

Exc. 4th. Greek nouns in tor, shorten the increment; as, Hector — 

6ris, 
Exc. 5th. Greek nouns in pus, (tfovg) ; as, tripus. Polypus; also, 

arbor, memor, bos, compos, impos, and lepus, have 6 short 

in the increment. 

E. 

3. Increments in e, of the third declension, are short. 
Exc. 1st. The increment in -enis from en and o is long; as, Siren, 

Sirenis; Anio, Anienis. 
Exc. 2d. The increment in e is long from hceres, locuples, mansues, 

merces, and quies. Also from Iber and ver — from lex, rex 

and vervex — plebs, seps, and halec. 
Exc. 3d. Greek nouns in er and es increase e long; as, Crater, era* 

teris; magnes, magnetis. 
I. 

4. Increments in i, of the third declension are short. 

Exc. 1st. Verbals in trix, and adjectives in ix have ilong; as, vie* 
trix, victrlcis; f elix , f diets . 

Also cervix, cicatrix, comix, coturnix, lodix, matrix, per- 
dix, phcenix, radix, and vibex. 

Exc. 2d. Greek nouns in is and in, with the genitive in -inis, in- 
crease long; as. Salamis, Salaminis. 

Exc. 3d. Dis, glis, and lis, with Nests, Quiris, andSamnis, increase 
long. 

u. 

5. Increments in u, of the third declension, are short. 

Exc. 1st. Genitives in udis, uris, and utis, from nominatives in us, 
have the increase long; as, palus, paludis, &c. But ii- 
gus, intercus, and pecus, increase with u short. 

Exc. 2d. Fur,frux, lux, and Pollux, have u long. 

Y. 

6. Increments in y are short. 

Exc. Greek nouns with the genitive in ynis, have the increase long. 
Also Bombyx, Ceyx, and gryps, which increase long. 

INCREMENTS OF THE PLURAL NUMBER. 

A noun in the plural number, is said to increase when it has more 
syllables in any case, than in the nominative plural. 

An increment in the plural, can occur only in the genitive, dative, 
and ablative, and in these, it is the syllable next to the last. When 
any of these cases has no more syllables than the nominative, it has 



§ 158 PROSODY. QUANTITY. 281 

no plural increment. Thus, Sermonum, puZris, capitum, have no plu- 
ral increase, because they have no more syllables than sermones, pu- 
£ri } capita; still, they all have the increment of the singular, because 
they have more syllables than sermo, puer, and caput. But sermoni- 
bus, puervrum, and capitibus, have both the singular and plural in- 
crement. 

Rule XII. Plural increments in a, e, and 0, are long — in 
s, and u, short; as, 

Musarum, rerum, virorum, partibus, lacubus. 
from Musce, res, viri, partes, lacus. 

EXPLANATION. — All the increments of the singular remain in 
the plural, and to these the plural increment is added. The rule here 
given applies to the plural increments only, and not to the increments 
of the singular in the plural. Thus, in itineribas from iter, the se- 
cond and third syllables are increments of the singular, to be found 
in itingris; the fourth is the plural increment, which comes under 
this rule. 



§ 158. INCREMENT OF VERBS. 

A verb is said to increase when it has more syllables in any part, 
than in the second person singular, of the present indicative, active 
voice; as, amas, amatis, amabatis, &c. — A verb in the active voice 
may have three increments, and in the passive four. If there is but 
one increment, it is the syllable next the last. If there is two, the se- 
cond increment is the syllable next the last, and the first the syllable 
preceding that, &c. thus. 

1 12 12 3 

a-mas, — am-a-mus, — am-a-ba-mus, — am-av-er-a-mus, &c 

The increments of deponent verbs, are determined in the same 
manner as if they had an active form. 

Rule XIV. In the increase of verbs, <z, e, and o, are long ; 
i y and u short; as, 

jimaremus, amatote; legimus, possUmus. 

Exceptions in A. 

1. The first increment of do is short; as, ddmus, dabamus, dare-mus, 
&c. 

Exceptions in E. 

2. E is short before ram, rim and ro. 

But when contracted by syncope it is long ; as, fieram for flevB- 
ram. 

24* 



282 PROSODY. QUANTITY. § 159 

3. In the third conjugation e is short before r in the first 
increase of the present and imperfect ; as, 

Leggre, legtrem, Act. legZreris, legZrere, legZre, Pass. 

4. In the first and second conjugation e is short in — beris 
and — b ere. 

Note—erunt and -ere in the perfect come under the general rule : 
sometimes they are shortened. § 167. 5. 

Exceptions in I. 

5. In preterite tenses i is long before v; as, 
Audivi, audiveram, audiverim, &c. 

6. In the first increase of the fourth conjugation, except 
-imus of the perfect, i not before a vowel is always long ; as, 

Pres. venimus; Perf. venimus. So, also, ibam, and ibo, from eo. 

7. I is long in shnus, sitis, velzmus, velttis; and their com- 
pounds; as, possimus, nolzmus, &c. 

8. In rimus, and ritis of the Future perfect indicative and 
perfect subjunctive, i is common; as, 

Dix£rimus f or dixZrimus; videritis, or videritis. 

Note. — t/long before turn of the supine comes under Rule VIII. 
and IX. It is also long in the penult of the perfect participle by the 
same rules, as the perfect participle is always derived from the supine. 



§ 159. QUANTITY OF PENULT SYLLABLES. 

For the quantity of penult syllables no definite rule can be given 
which is not rendered nearly useless by the number of exceptions oc- 
curring under it. The following observations are usually given rather 
as a general guide, than certain rules, and they might be easily ex- 
tended were it of any practical advantage. 

1. Patronymics in IDES or ABES usually shorten the 
penult ; as, 

Priamides, Atlantiades, Sec. Unless they come from nouns in eus; 
as, Pelides, Tydides, &c. 

2. Patronymics, and similar words, in AIS, EIS, ITIS } 
OIS, OTIS] IZVJS, and ONE commonly lengthen the pe- 
nult ; as, 

Achais, Ptolemais, Chrysiis, JEneis, Memphltis, Latois, Icariohs 



§ 159 PROSODY. QUANTITY. 28& 

Nerlne, Acrisione. Except Thebais, and Phocdis short ; and Nereis, 
which is common. 

3. Adjectives in ACUS, ICUS, IDUS, and IMUS, for 

the most part shorten the penult 5 as, 

JEgyptiacus, academicus, lepidus, legitimus: also superlatives ; as, 
fortissimus, &c. Except opticus, amicus, aprlcus, pudlcus, meridiem, 
antlcus, posticus, fidus, infidus, (but perfidus, of per and fides, is 
short,) blmus, quadrimus, patrlmus, matrlmus, oplmus ; and the two 
superlatives, imus, and primus. 

4. Adjectives in ALIS, ANUS, ARUS, IVUS, ORUS, 
OSUS, lengthen the penult ; as, 

Dotdlis, urbanus, avarus, eestivus, decorus, arenosus. Except bar- 
bdrus, opiparus. 

5. Verbal adjectives inlLIS shorten the penult ; as, agilis, 
facilis, &c. But derivatives from nouns usually lengthen 
it 5 as. 

Anllis, civllis, herllis, &c. To these add, exllis, subiilis ; and 
names of months, Aprllis, Quinctllis, Sextilis : Except humilis, pari- 
lis -, and also similis. But all adjectives in atilis are short ; as, 
versaUlis, volatilis. umbratilis, plicaiilis, fluviatilisj saxatilis, &c. 

6. Adjectives in INUS, derived from words denoting 
inanimate things, as plants, stones, &c. also from adverbs of 
time, commonly shorten the penult ; as, 

Amar acinus, crocinus, cedrinus, faginus, oleaginus ; adamantinus, 
crystallinus , crastinus, prisiinus. perendinus. carinus* annotinus. &c. 

Other adjectives in INUS are long 5 as, 

Agnlnus, caninus, leporlnus blnus, trlnus qulnus, austrinus, clan 
destlnus, Latlnus, marlnus, suplnus, vespertlnus, &c. 

7. Diminutives in OLUS, OLA, OLUM; and ULUS, 
ULA, ULTJM, always shorten the penult; as, 

Urceolus, fiiiola, musceblum; lectulus, ratiuncula, corciilum, &c. 

8. Adverbs in TIM lengthen the penult ; as, 
Oppidatim, virltim,tributim. Except affatim. perpetim, and stdtim. 

9. Disideratives in URIO shorten the antepenult, which 
in the second and third person is the penult 5 as, 

Esurio, esiiris, esurit. But other verbs in urio lengthen that sylla- 
ble j as, ligurio, liguris ; scalurio. scaturis. &c. 



284 PROSODY. QUANTITY. § 159 

PENULT OF PROPER NAMES. 

The following proper names lengthen the penult : Abdera, Abydus, 
Adonis, iEsopus, iEtolus, Ahala, Alaricus, Alcides, Amyclae, Andro- 
nicus, Anubis, Archimedes, Ariarathes, Ariobarzanes, Aristides, 
Aristobulus, Aristogiton, Arpinum, Artabanus ; Brachmanes, Busi- 
ris, Buthrotus ; Cethegus, Chalcedon, Cleobulus, Cyrene, Cythera, 
Curetes ; Darici, Demomcus, Diomedes, Diores, Dioscuri j Ebudes, 
Eriphyle, Eubulus, Euclides, Euphrates Eumedes, Euripus, Euxmus, 
Garganus, Gsetulus, Granicus ; Heliogabalus, Henricus, Heraclides, 
Heraclitus, Hipponax, Hispanus j Irene ; Lacydas, Latona, Leucata, 
Lugdunum, Lycoras ; Mandane, Mausolus, Maximinus, Meleager, 
Messala, Messana, Miletus ; Naslca, Nicanor, Nicetas ; Pachy- 
nus, Pandora, Peloris fy -us, Pharsalus, Phoenice, Polltes, Poly- 
cletus, Polynlces, Priapus, Sardanapalus, Sarpedon, Serapis, Sinope, 
StratonTce, Suffetes ; Tigranes, ThessalonTca ; Verona, Veronica. 

The following are short : Amathus, Amphipolis, Anabasis, Anti- 
cyra, Antigonus, fy -ne, Antilochus, Antiochus, Antiopa, Antlpas, 
Antipater, Antiphanes, Antiphates, Antiphlia, Antlphon, Anytus, 
Apulus, Areopagus, Ariminum, Armenus, Athesis, Attalus, Attica ; 
Biturix, Bructeri • Calaber, Callicrates, Callistratus, Candace, Can- 
taber, Carneades, Cherilus, Chrysostcmus, Cleombrotus, Cleomenes, 
Corycos, Constantinopolis, Craterus, Cratylus, Cremera, Crustumeri, 
Cybele, Cyclades, Cyzlcus ; Dalmatae, Damocles, Dardanus, Dejoces, 
Dejotarus, Democrltus, Demlpho, Didymus, Diogenes, Drepanum, 
Dumnorix ; Empedocles, Ephesus, Evergetes, Eumenes, Eurymedon, 
Euripylus ; Fuclnus ,• Geryones, Gyarus ; Hecyra, Helipolis, Hermi- 
one, Herodotus, Hesiodus, Hesione, Hippocrates, Hippotamos, 
Hypata, Hypanis ; Icarus, Icetas, Illyris, Iphltus, Ismarus, Itha- 
ca ; Laodlce, Laomedon, Lampsacus, Lamyrus, Lapithse, Lucre- 
tilis, Libanus, Lipare or -a, Lysimachus, Longimanus : Marathon, 
Msenalus, Marmarlca, Massagetse, Matrona, Megara, Melltus # -ta, 
Metropolis, Mutlna, Miconus ; Neocles, Nerltos, Norlcum ; Omphale; 
Patara, Pegasus, Pharnaces, Pisistratus, Polydamus; Polyxena, Por- 
sena or Porsenna, Praxiteles, Puteoli, Pylades, Pythagoras ; Sarma- 
tse, Sarslna, Semele, Semiramis, Sequani fy -a, Sisyphus, Sicoris, Socra- 
tes, Sodoma, Sotades, Spartacus, Sporades, Strongyle, Stymphalus, 
Sybaris; Taygetus, Telegonus, Telemachus, Tenedos, Tarraco, Theo- 
phanes, Theophilus, Tomyris j Urblcus ; Veneti, Vologesus, Volusus ; 
Xencrates ; Zoilus, Zopyrus. 

The penult of several words is doubtful ; thus, Batavi. Lucan. 
Batavi. Juv. & Mart. Fortuitus, Hor. Fortuitas. Martial. Some make 
fortuities of three syllables, but it may be shortened like gratuitus. 
Stat. Fatrimus, matrimus, prastolor, &c. are by some lengthened, 
and by some shortened ; but for their quantity there is no certain au- 
thority. 



§ 160. FINAL SYLLABLES. 

A final. 

Rule XV. A in the end of a word declined by cases is 
short ; as, Musa, templa, &c. 



§160 PROSODY. QUANTITY. 285 

Exc, 1. The ablative of the first declension is long ; as, Musd, &c, 
Exc. 2. The vocative of Greek nouns in as is long ; as, JEnea, 

O Palla. 

Rule XVI. A in the end of a word not declined by cases 

is long 5 as, Ama, frustrd, ergd, intra, &c. 

Exc, ltd, quid, ejd, posted, putd. (adv.) are short j Sometimes 

also the prepositions contra, and ultra; and the compounds of 

•ginta as trigintd, &c. But contra and ultra, as adverbs, are al- 

ways long. 

E final. 

Rule XVII. E in the end of a word is short ; as, Nate, 
sedile, ipse, posse, nempe, ante. 

Special Rules and Exceptions. 
Rule 1. Monosyllables in e are long; as, me, te, se. 
Exc. The enclitics que 1 , v£, ne 1 , are short ; also ptZ, cZ, tt. 

Rule 2. Nouns of the first and fifth declension have final 
e long ; as, Calliope, Anchise, die, &c. 

Also Greek neuter plurals -, as, Cete, mele, Tempe, &c. 

Rule 3. Verbs of the second conjugation have e long 
in the second person singular of the imperative active ; as, 
Doce, mane, &c. But cave, vale, and vide are sometimes 
short. 

Rule 4. Adverbs from adjectives of the first and se- 
cond declension have final e long ; as, placide, pulchre, valde, 
(contracted for valide.) So also ferme, fere, and ohe. 

Exc. But bene 1 , male*, inferng, and supcrnl are short, 
final. 

Rule XVIII. I final is long ; as, domini, fill, &c. 

Exc. 1. I final is common in mini, tibi, sibi ; also in ibi, ubi, 
nisi, quasi. Sometimes uti and cut as a dissyllable have i short. 
Sicuti, sicubi, and necubi are always short. 

Exc. 2. /final is short in Greek vocatives and datives j as, JLlexi, 
Daphni j Palladi, Troasi, and Troasin. 

O final. 
Rule XIX. O final is common ; as, Virgo, amo, quando. 
Exc. 1. Monosyllables in are long; as, O, do, sto, pro. 



286 PROSODY.— QUANTITY. § 160 

Exc. 2. The dative and ablative in o are long $ as, libro, 
domino. Also Greek nouns in o ; as, Didd, Sapphd. 

Exc. 3. Ablatives used as adverbs have o long j as, certo, falso, 
paulo ; quo, eo, and their compounds: illo, idcirco, citro, retro, 
ultro, ergo, (for the sake of.) 

Exc. 4. Ego, scib, the defective verb cedo; also homb, citb, illicd, 
immb, dub, ambb, modb, and its compounds quombdb, dummbdb, 
fostmodo, are almost always short. 

Exc. 5. The gerund in do is long in Virgil, in other poets mostly 
short. 

U and Y, final. 

Rule XX. U final is long ; Y final is short, as vultu, Moly. 

B, D, L, M, R, T, final, 
Rule XXI. B, D, L, R and T, in the end of a word are 
short; as. ah, apud, semel, carmen^ pate?', caput. 

EXPLANATION.— This rule does not apply, if any of these final 
letters are preceded by a diphthong, or if the syllable is contracted, 
or made long by position ; as, aut, ablt for abiit, amant, 

Exc. 1. Sal, sol, and nil are long. 

Exc. 2. JLer, & cBther, are long. Also nouns in er which have 
•cm in the genitive j as, Crater, Iber, &c. 

Exc. 3. Far, lar, Nar, 'par, cur, euidfur, are long. 

Exc. 4. The Hebrew names Job, Daniel, are long -, but David and 
Bogud are common. 

Obs. Affinal anciently made the preceding vowel short, as Militum 
octo. By later poets it is usually cut off, by Echthlipsis, (§ 167 .2.) 
when the next word begins with a vowel. When not so cut off, it is 
short. 

C, N 3 final. 

Rule XXII. C and N in the end of a word are long ; as, 
dc, sic illuc, en, non, &c. 

Exc* 1. Nee and donee are short; hie and/ac, common. 

Exc, 2. Forsitan, in, forsan, tamen, an, viden, are short. 

Exc. 3. En having -inis in the genitive is short ; as, carmen, car- 
minis. Also Greek nouns in an, on, in, yn, originally short, and 
the dative plural in sin have the final syllable short ; as, Ilibn, Era- 
tion, Maidn, Alexin, chelyn, Troasin, &c. 

As, Es, Os, final. 

Rule XXIII. 'As, Es, Os, in the end of a word are long ; 
as, Mas, quils, bonds. 



§161 



PROSODY. QUANTITY. 



287 



Exc. 1. As is short in anas and Greek nouns which have -adis or 
-ados in the genitive ; as, Areas, lampds, &c. 

Exc. 2. Es is short, 1st in nouns and adjectives which increase 
short in the genitive ; as, hospZs, limes, hebes. But Ceres, paries, 
aries, abies, and pes, with its compounds are long. 2d. Es from 
s&m, and pen&s are short. 3d. Greek neuters in es, and nominatives 
and vocatives of the third declension which increase in the genitive 
otherwise than in eos, have es short ; as, Arcade's, Tro8s, &c. 

Exc. 3. Os is short in compos, impos, 6s, (ossis,)— in Greek 
words of the second declension, and in neuters and genitives of the 
third ; as, llios, Tyros, chaos, epos, Pallados, &c. 

Is, Us, Ys, final. 

Rule XXIV. Is, us and ys, in the end of a word are short | 
as, TurriS) legis, legimus, Capys. 

Exc, 1. Plural cases in is and ws are long ; but the dative 
and ablative in bus are short. 

Exc. 2+ Nouns in is with the genitive in Itis, mis, or entis are 
long ; as Samnis, Salamls, Simols. 

Exc. 3. 7s is long in glis, vis, gratis, forls. And in the second 
Pers. Sing. Pres. Ind. Active of the fourth conjugation as audls. 
Also in /'is, is, sis, vis, velis, and their compounds possls, quamvis ? 
mails j noils, &c. 

Exc. 4. Monosyllables in -us are long ; as, grus, sus. &c. 

Also those which have uris, udis, utis, untis, or odis, in the geni- 
tive ; as, tellies, incus, virtus, Amathus, tripus. To these add 
Greek genitives in us ; as, Didus, Sapphus, ?zc. 

Exc. 5. Tethys is sometimes long, likewise nouns in ys, which 
have also yn in the nominative; as, Phorcys or Phorcyn. 



« 161 QUANTITY OF DERIVATIVES AND COM- 
POUNDS. 
Rule XXV. Derivatives follow the quantity of their 
primitives ; as, 

Amicus, from amo. Decoro, from decus, -oris. 

Auctiohor, auctio, -onis, Exulo, exul, -ulis. 

Auctoro, auctor, -oris. Pavldus paveo, 

Auditor, audi turn. Quirito, Quiris, -itis. 

Auspicor, auspex, -icis. Radicitus, radix, -icis. 

Cauponor, caupo, -onis. Sospito, sospes, -itis. 

Competitor, competltum. Natura, natus. 

Cornlcor, comix, -Icis. Maternus, mater. 

Custodio, custos, -odis. Legebam, fyc. lego. 

Decorus. decor, -oris. Legeram, fyc. legi. 



288 PROSODY. QUANTITY. § 161 

EXCEPTIONS. 

1. Long from Short. 

Beni, from decern. Susplcio, from susplcor. Mobllis, from moveo. 
Fomes, foveo. Sedes, sedeo. Humor, humus. 

Humanus, homo. Secius, secus. Jumentum, juvo. 

Regula, rego. Penuria, penus. Vox, vocis, voco, fyc, 

2. Short from Long, 

Arena and arista, from areo. Lucerna, from luceo. 

Nota a?id noto, notus. Dux, -ucis, duco. 

Vadum, vado. Stabllis. stabam. 

Fides, fido. Dltio, dis, ditis. 

Sopor, sopio. Quasillus, qualus, fyc. 

EXPLANATION.-— This rule applies to all those parts of the 
verb derived or formed from the primary parts, § 51, and 52, i. e. 
the quantity of the primary part remains in all the parts formed 
from it. 

Rule XXV. Compounds follow the quantity of the sim- 
ple words which compose them ; as, 

Adamo. from ad and amo ; deduco, from de and duco. 

Obs. 1. The change of a vowel or diphthong, in forming the com- 
pound, does not alter its quantity • as, cado, concido; ccedo, concido; 
claudo, recludo: cequus, iniquus, fee. 

Obs. 2. When a short syllable in the first part of the compound 
ends with a consonant, it becomes long by position when joined to 
another word beginning with a consonant : as, permaneo from per 
and maneo ; but if the second word begin with a vowel, the first re- 
tains its quantity ; as, perambido. from per and ambulo. 

Obs. 3. When the second part of a compound word begins with a 
vowel, the vowel ending the first part is short by Rule I. When it 
begins with two consonants or a double consonant, the vowel pre- 
ceding is long by Rule II. But if it begins with a simple consonant 
followed by a vowel or diphthong, the vowel preceding is sometimes 
long, and sometimes short by the following 

Special Rules for the first part of a compound, end- 
ing with a vowel. 

Rule 1. The first part of a compound, if a preposition 
of one syllable, has the final vowel long; as, decido, pro- 
tendo. 

Exc. 1. Pro is short in proceUa, prof anus, prbfari, profecto, pro- 
festus, prdficiscor, profiteer, profugxo, profugus, profundus, prone- 
pos. proneptis, p?-opero, and protervus. It is common in procuro, 
profundo, propago, propello. propino, propulso. 



§ 161 PROSODY. QUANTITY. 289 

Exc, 2, The Greek pro (before,) is always short; as, proopheta, 
prologus. 

2Vo£e.— The final vowel of a preposition of more than one syllable, 
retains its own quantity j as, contradico, antZcedo. 

Rule 2. The inseparable prepositions se and di are long; 
re short , as, Sepano, dwello, repello. 

Exc. 3. Di is short in dirimo and dtsertus. Re is long 
in refert. 

Rule 3. The first part of a compound, not a preposition, 
has final a long ; e, 2, o, u, and y short ; as, 

Malo, nZfas, biceps, philosophies , ducenti, Polydorus. 

Exc. 1. A. In gwasi, eddem, not in the ablative, and in some Greek 
compounds, a is short. 

^Ja:c. 2. E. The e is long in nemo, nequam, nequando, nequaquam, 
nequidquam, nequis, nequitia; memet, mecum, tecum, secum, vecors, 
vesanus, veneficus. Also in words compounded with se for sex, or 
semi; as, sedecim, semestris, &c. E is common in some compounds 
of facio; as , liquefacio , patefacio, rarefacio, &c. 

Exc. 3. I. When the first part of a compound is declined, i is long; 
as, qulddm, qullibet, relpubliccB, &c. or when the first can be separat- 
ed from the last, and yet both retain their form and meaning; as, lu- 
dl-magister, lucrl-facio , si-quis, agri-cultura, &c. 

lis sometimes made long by contraction; as, blg<2, scilicet, blmus. 
&c. for bljugce, scire licet, bis annus, or biennius. It is also long in 
idem, (masculine) ublque, utroblque, ibidem, nlmirum, and the com- 
pounds of dies, such as, blduum, prldie; merldies, 8tc. In ubicunque 
and ubivis, it is common. 

Exc. 4. O. Contro, intro, retro, and quando, in compounds have 
the final o long; as, controversia, introduco, retrocedo, quandoque, 
(except quando quidem.) 

is long in compounds of quo; as, quomodo, qubcunque, quominus, 
quocirca, quovis, quo que } (from quisque;) but in quoque, the conjunction, 
it is short. 

Exc. 5. U. Jupiter , judex , and judicium have u long; also usuca- 
pio, and usuvenio, being capable of separation as in Exc. 3. 

Rule XXVII. The last syllable of every verse is common. 

EXPLANATION.— This means that a short syllable at the end of 
a line, if the verse requires it, is considered long; and a long sylla- 
ble, if the verse requires it, is considered short. 

N. B. A syllable which does not come under any of the 
preceding rules, is said to be long, or short, by " authority," 
viz: of the poets. 

25 



290 



PEOSODY. — VERSIFICATION. 



§162 



§ 162. VERSIFICATION. 

A verse is a certain number of long and short syllables, disposed 
according to rule. The parts into which a verse is divided are called 
Feet. 

OF FEET. 

A foot in metre, is composed of two or more syllables, strictly re- 
gulated by time, and is either simple or compound. The simple feet 
are twelve in number, of which four consist of two, and eight of 
three syllables. There are sixteen compound feet, each of four syl- 
lables. These varieties are as follows: 

Simple feet of two Syllables. 



Pyrrhic 




>mS S-^ 


as Detis. 


Spondee 







as fuudunt. 


Iambus 




s-/ 


as arma. 


Trochee 




— s^ 


as erant. 


Simple feet of three Syllables. 


Tribrach 




v-' <w \~s 


as facere. 


Molossus 







as contendunt. 


Dactyl 




~~ \S N-^ 


as corpora. 


Anapaest 




\~s v— /< """"" 


as domini, 


Bacchius 




v-^ "~"~ *"" 


as dolores. 


Antibacchius 


"~ m """ v^ 


as Romanos. 


Amphibrach 


V— ' "~ — v-/ 


as honor e. 


Amphimacer 


"" ~ N_^ ~ ~" 


as charitas. 


Compound feet 


" of four i 


Syllables. 


Choriambus 


"~~" v-x v-' ~~~ 


pontiflces 


Trochee and Iambus. 


Antispastus 


v-^ ~" "" " \~s 


amabatis 


Iambus and Trochee. 


Ionic a majore 


' V— ' N-« 


calcarlbus 


Spondee and Pyrrhic. 


Ionic a minore 


\«-/ >>-• ~"~" """" 


properabant Pyrrhic and Spondee. 


First Paeon 


~~~ V V_/ S~S 


temporlbus 


Trochee and Pyrrhic. 


Second Paeon 


V-^ """* >*• V 


potentia 


Iambus and Pyrrhic. 


Third Paeon 


^W N_^ "~ ~ ™ N_^ 


animatus 


Pyrrhic and Trochee. 


Fourth Paeon 


V-/" v-^ v~/ 


celerltas 


Pyrrhic and Iambus. 


First Epitrite 


w 


voluptates 


Iambus and Spondee. 


Second Epitrite 


— W 


con di tores 


Trochee and Spondee 


Third Epitrite 


v^ — — 


discordias 


Spondee and Iambus. 


Fourth Epitrite 


w 


adduxistls 


Spondee and Trochee 


Proceleusmaticus 


>W V--' 'W V 


hominlbiis 


Two Pyrrhics. 


Dispondee 





or a tores 


Two Spondees. 


Diiambus 


N--" ~~~ V»/ — ~ 


amaverant 


Two Iambi. 


Ditrochee 


— y^, — y_, 


Cantilena 


Two Trochees 



§ 162 



PROSODY. VERSIFICATION. 



291 



ISOCHRONOUS FEET 

1. In every foot, a long syllable is equal in time to two short ones. 
To constitute feet Isochronous, two things are necessary. 1st. That 
they have the same time; 2d. that they be interchangeable in metre. 

2. Feet have the same time which are measured by an equal num- 
ber of short syllables; thus, the Spondee, Dactyl, Anapaest, and Pro- 
celeusmaticus, have the same time, each being equal to four short 
syllables. 

3. Feet are interchangeable in metre, when the ictus or stress of 
the voice falls, or may fall, on the same portion of the foot. The 
part of the foot that receives the ictus, is called arsis, or elevation, 
the rest of the foot is termed thesis, or depression. 

4. The natural place of the arsis, is the long syllable of the foot. 
Hence, in the Iambus, it falls on the second syllable, and in the Tro- 
chee, on the first. Its place in the Spondee andTribrach cannot be de- 
termined by the feet themselves, each syllable being of the same 
length. 

5. In all kinds of verse, the fundamental foot determines the place 
of the arsis for the other feet admitted into it, thus: In Dactylic 
verse, and Trochaic verse, the Spondee will have the arsis on the first 
syllable; — in Anapaestic, and Iambic, on the last. In Trochaic 
verse, the tribrach will have the arsis on the first syllable, J^ w w , 
in Iambic on the second, w >£, ^ 

6. Those feet, then, according to the ancients, were called isochro- 
nous, which were capable of being divided into parts that were equal 
in time, so that a short syllable should correspond to a short; and a 
long, to a long, or to two short; thus: in Iambic and Trochaic verse, 

Iambus w / Trochee / 



Tribrach > 
In Dactylic and Anapaestic: thus, 
Dactyl _/ 



Tribrach 



Spondee -^ 



w Anapaest >_• w J^ 

Spondee -_ -£. 



But feet which cannot be divided in this manner, are not isochro- 
nous, though they havethe same time ; thus, the Iambus and Trochee, 
though equalin time, cannot be divided so as to have the correspond- 
ing parts ©f equal length. Thus, 

Iambus, ^ j — 

Trochee, _/ 



292 PROSODY. METRE. § 163 

Hence these feet are not interchangeable, or isochronous ; and for 
this reason a Trochee is never admitted into Iambic verse nor an 

Iambus into Trochaic. The same is true of the Spondee, ( ) and 

Amphibrach, ( ^ — ^ ) and of the Amphibrach with the Dactyl or 
Anapaest. 






§ 163. OF METRE. 

1. Metre, in its general sense, means an arrangement of syllables and 
feet in verse, according to certain rules ; and in this sense applies, 
not only to an entire verse, but to part of a verse, or to any number 
of verses. A metre, in a specific sense, means a combination of two 
feet (sometimes called a syzygy) and sometimes one foot only. 

The distinction between rhythm and metre is this : — the former 
refers to the time only, in regard to which, two short syllables 
are equivalent to one long ; the latter refers both to the time and the 
order of the syllables. The rhythm of an anapaest and dactyl is the 
same j the metre different. The term rhythm, is also understood in a 
more comprehensive sense, and is applied to the harmonious con- 
struction and enunciation of feet and words in connection ; thus, a 
line has rhythm when it contains any number of metres of equal time, 
without regard to their order. Metre requires a certain number of me- 
tres, and these arranged in a certain order. Thus, in this line, 

Panditur interea domus omnipotentis Olympi, 

there is both rhythm (as it contains six metres of equal value in re 
spect of time) and metre, as these metres are arranged according to 
the canon for Hexameter heroic verse, which requires a dactyl ia the 
oth, and a spondee in the 6th place. Change the order thus, 

Omnipotentis Olympi panditur interea domus, 

and the rhythm remains as perfect as before, but tie metre is de- 
stroyed j it is no longer a Hexameter heroic line. 

2. The principal metres used in Latin poetry are six ; namely, 
1. Iambic. 2. Trochaic. 3. Anapaestic. 4. Dactylic. 5. Choriam- 
bic. 6. Ionic. These are so called from the foot which prevails ia 
them. 

These different kinds of verse in certain varieties are also de- 
signated by the names of certain poets, who either invented 
them, or made special use of them in their writings. Thus, we have 
Asclepiadic, Glyconian, Alcaic, Sapphic, Pherecratian, &c.from As- 
clepiades, Glycon, Alcaeus, Sappho, Pherecrates, &c. 

3. In Iambic, Trochaic, and Anapaestic verse, a metre consists of 
two feet, (sometimes called a dipodia or syzygy,) in the other kinds 
of one foot. 

4. Averse consisting of one metre is called Monometer ; of two 
metres, Dimmer; of three, Trimeter-, of f bur, Tetrameter ; of five, 
Pentameter ; of six, Hexameter ; of seven, Heptameter ; &c. Hence, 
in Trochaic, Iambic, and Anapaestic verse, a monometer will contain 



§ 163 



PROSODY. METRE. 293 



two feet ; a dimeter, four ; a trimeter, six ; &c. in the other kinds of 
verse, a monometer contains one foot, a dimeter, two ) a trimeter, 
three, &c« 

5. A verse or line of any metre may be complete, having precisely 
the number of feet or syllables that the canon requires j or, it may 
be deficient ; or, it may be redundant. To express this, a verse is va- 
riously characterized as follows -, viz. 

1. Acatalectic , when complete. 

2. C dialectic, if wanting one syllable. 

3. Brachycatalectic, if wanting two syllables or a foot. 

4. Hyper cat alectic , or hyper meter ', when it has one or two syllables 
more than the verse requires. 

5. Acephalous, when a syllable is wanting at the beginning of the 
line. 

6. Asynartete, when different measures are conjoined in one line. 

Hence, in order fully to describe any verse, three terms are employ- 
ed ; the first expressing the kind of verse ; the second, the number 
of metres ,* and the third the character of the line ; thus, 

Non vul- | tus in- Jj stantis | tyran- || ni | 

is described - } as, Iambic, dimeter, hyper cat alectic. 

6. Verses or parts of verses are farther designated by a term ex- 
pressive of the number of feet, or parts of feet, which they contain. 
Thus, a line or part of a line containing 

three half feet is called trimimer, 
five half feet, u penthemimer, 

seven half feet, " hephthemimer. 
These are of use to point out the place of 

THE CiESURAL PAUSE. 

7. Ccesura in metre is the separation, by the ending of a word, of 
syllables rhythmically or metrically connected. 

It is of three kinds, 1. Of the foot: 2. of the rhythm: 3. of the 
verse. 

1st. Caesura of the foot occurs when a word ends before a foot is 
completed j as in the second, third, fourth and fifth feet of the follow- 
ing line ; 

• Silves- | trem tenii- | i Mu- | sam medi- | taris a- | vena 

2d. Ceesura of the rhythm is the separation of the arsis from the 
thesis by the ending of a word, as in the second, third and fourth feet 
of the preceding line. 

This has sometimes the effect of making a final short syllable long, 
by the force of the ictus,- as, 

Petori | bus inhi- | ans spi- | rantia | consulit | exta . 

Note.— This effect is not produced by the Caesura of the foot, nor of the verse, 
unless they happen to coincide with the caesura of the rhythm. 

3d. The Caesura of the verse is such a division of the line into two 
parts, as affords to the voice a pause or rest, at a proper or fixed 
place without injuring the sense, by pausing in the middle of a word, 

25 # 



294 PROSODY. METRE. § 164 

8. The proper management of this pause is a great beauty in cer- 
tain kinds of verse, and shews the skill of the poet. In pentameter 
verse, its place is fixed ; in hexameter and other metres it is left to 
the poet. When it occurs at the end of the third half foot, it is called 
trimimeris ; — of the fifth, penthemimeris j — of the seventh, hephthemi- 
meris. 

9. The situation of each foot in a verse is called its place. 



$ 164. DIFFERENT KINDS OF METRE. 

The canons, or rules of the different kinds of metre used in Latin 
poetry are the following ; 

I. IAMBIC METRE. 

1. A pure iambic line consists of iambic feet only 5 as, 

Phase J bus U- || U quern | vide- [| tls hos- | pltes. || 

where the single line marks the end of the foot; the double 
line, the end of the metre; and the Italic syllable, the cassural 
pause. 

2. A mixed iambic line admits a spondee into the first, 
third, and fifth places ; and again in all these a dactyl or an 
anapaest is sometimes admitted for a spondee, and a tribrach 
for the iambus. 

3. This verse occurs in all varieties of length from the 
dimeter catalectic to the tetrameter. 

4. The caesura commonly takes place at the fifth half foot. 

5. Different varieties of this metre are denominated as fol- 
lows ; 

1st. Senarian, or Trimeter catalectic, used in tragedy and comedy. 

2d. Archilochian, or Trimeter catalectic. 

3d Archilochian, or Dimeter hypermeter. 

4th. Anacreontic, or Dimeter catalectic. 

5th. Galliambus, or Dimeter catalectic, double ; i. e. two verses in 

one line. 
6th. HipponactiCj or Tetrameter catalectic. 
7th. Choi-iambus, or Trimeter Acatalectic. This is called also, 

Scazon and Hipponactic trimeter, and has a spondee in the 

sixth place, and generally an iambus in the fifth. 
8th. Octonarius, or Tetrameter acatalectic, called also quadratics. 
9th. Acephalous, or Dimeter, wanting the first syllable of the first 

foot. This may be resolved into Trochaic dimeter catalectic. 



§ 164 FHOsODY. — METRE. 295 

II. TROCHAIC METRE. 

1. A pure trochaic line consists of trochees only. These, 
however, are but seldom used. An Acephalous trochaic be- 
comes an iambic line ; and an Acephalous iambic becomes a 
trochaic line. 

2. A mixed trochaic line admits a spondee, a dactyl, an 
anapsest, and sometimes a proceleusmatic in even places, i. e. 
in the 2d, 4th, 6th, &c. But in the odd places a trochee, or a 
tribrach, and in the last place, a trochee only. 

3. This verse may be used in all varieties from the Mono- 
meter hypercatalectic, (two trochees .and one syllable,) to the 
tetrameter or octonarius catalectic. The varieties most used 
by the Latin poets, are 

1st. The Trochaic tetrameter catalectic, rarely pure : 
2d. The Sapphic, consisting of five feet, viz. a trochee, a 

spondee, a dactyl, and two trochees. It has thecsesural 

pause after the fifth half foot ; thus, 

Inte- | ger vi- | tse || scele- | risque [ purus. Hor. 

3d. The Phalcecian or Phaleucian consisting of five feet ; 
viz. a spondee, a dactyl and three trochees , thus, 

Non est | vivere | sed va | lere | vita. Mart. 
This verse neither requires nor rejects a caesura. 

4th. The Trochaic dimeter catalectic or Acephalous iambic 
dimeter. See I. 9th. 

5th. Other varieties but seldom used ; are, 1. the Pancratic mon- 
ometer, hypercatalectic. 2. The Ithyphalic, dimeter Brachycat. 
3. The Euripidean, dimeter catalectic. 4. The Alcmanic, 
dimeter acatalectic. 5. Anacreontic, dimeter acatalectic, with 
a pyrrhic in the first place. 6. The Hipponactic, tetrameter 
acatalectic. 

III. ANAPiESTIC METRE. 

1. A pure Anapaestic line consists of Anapaests only. 

2. The mixed anapaest has a spondee or a dactyl, feet of equal 
length, in any place 

3. The following varieties occur, viz. 1st. The Anapastic Mono- 
meter ■, consisting of two anapaests. 2d. The Anapcestic dimeter, con- 
listing of four Anapaests. 

Anapaestic verses are usually so constructed, that each measure 
ends with a word, so that they may be read in lines of one, two, or 
more measures. 



296 PROSODY. METRE. § 164 

4. Other varieties not much in use are the Simodian; Mon. AcaU 
The Partheniac, Dim. Cat. The Archebulian j trim. B. C, 

IV. DACTYLIC METRE. 

1. A pure Dactylic verse consists of dactyls only, which 
have the arsis on the first syllable of the foot. 

Of this verse one foot constitutes a metre, and they range in 
length from Dimeter to Hexameter. Of these the most important are, 

1. Hexameter or Heroic verse. 

Hexameter or Heroic verse consists of six feet, of which 
the fifth is a Dactyl, the sixth a spondee, and each of the 
other four a dactyl or a spondee ; as, 

Ludere | quae vel- | lem cala- | mo per- | misit a- | gresti. Virg. 

Respecting this verse the following things may be noticed. 

1st. When a spondee occurs in the fifth place, the line is called 
spondaic. Such lines are of a grave character, and but rarely occur. 

2d When the line consists of dactyls, the movement is brisk and 
rapid, when of spondees, slow and heavy. Compare in this respect 
the two following lines : the first expresses the rapid movement of 
a troop of horse over the plain eager for the combat; — the other de- 
scribes the slow and toilsome movements of the Cyclops at the la- 
bors of the forge. 

Quadrupe- | dante pu- | trem sonl- | tu quatlt | ungula | campum. 
-Illi In- | ter se- | se mag- | na. vi | brachla | tollunt. Virg. 

3d. The beauty and harmony of a Hexameter verse de- 
pends on the proper management of the caesura. The most 
approved caesura! pause in heroic poetry, is that which oc- 
curs after the arsis of the third foot. Sometimes called the 
heroic csesural pause ; thus, 

At domtts | interl- | or || re- | gall [ splendida | luxu. Virg. 

In reading this line with due attention to quantity, we naturally 
pause where the csesural pause is indicated by the double line, and 
the whole movement is graceful and pleasing. Compare now with 
this, a line in which no attention is paid to the csesura, or in which, if 
one is made, you have to pause in the middle of a word and the dif- 
ference is manifest. 

Roma | moenla | ter- || ruit | Implger | Hannibal | armis. 

Sometimes the caesura falls after the thesis of the third foot, or the 
arsis of the fourth. In the last case a secondary one often occurs in 
the second foot. The pause at the end of the third foot was the least 
approved. The following lines are examples of each of these, 

1. Infin- | dum re- [ glna || ju- | bes reno | vare do- ( lorem. 

2. Primate- [ net, || plau | suque vo- | lat || freml- | tuque se- | cundo. 

3. Cul non | dlctus Hy- | las ptier |] et La- | tenia | Delos. 

2. A species of Hexameter is the Priapean. It is divisi- 
ble into two portions of three feet each, of which portions 



§ 164 PROSODY. METRE. 297 

the first begins generally with a trochee , and ends with an 
amphimacer, and the second begins with a trochee ; as fol- 
lows, 

O c6 | Ionia | quse cupis || ponte | ludere | longo. Catull. 
These parts, however, may very well be scanned, the first as a 
Glyconic, and the second as a Pherecratic verse, of which see under 
(V) Choriambic verse. 

3. Pentameter verse consists of five feet. It is commonly 
arranged in two portions or hemistichs, of which the first 
contains two feet, dactyls or spondees, followed by a long 
syllable which ought to end a word ; and the second, two dac- 
tyls followed by a long syllable ; thus, 

Maxima [ de nihl- | 15 || nascltilr histori | a — Propert. 
Pomaque | non no- | us || legit ab | arborl- J bus | Tibull. 

Where the first distich does not end a word, or if there be an elision 
by Synaloepha or Echthlipsis, the verse is considered harsh. 

This verse is commonly used alternately with a hexameter line, 
which combination is commonly called Elegiac verse. 

4. Dactylic tetrameter, of which there are two kinds. 
1st. Dactylic tetrameter a prior e, called also Alcmanian 

Dactylic tetrameter, which consists of the first four feet of ' 
a Hexameter line, the fourth being always a Dactyl ; as, 
Solvltur J acrls hy- | ems gra- | ta vice. Hor. 
2d. Dactylic tetrameter a posterior 'e, called also Spondaic 
tetrameter, which consists of the last four feet of a hexame- 
ter line \ as, 

Sic tris- I tes af- | fatus a- ] micos. Hor. 

5. Dactylic trimeter, (or Choriambic Trimeter Catalectic) 
consists of the three last feet of a Hexameter line, (See 
Choriambic verse ; ) as, 

Grato I Pyrrha sub [ antro. Hor. 

6. Dactylic trimeter catalectic, also called Archilochian 
penthemimeris, consists of the first five half feet of a Hexa- 
meter line 5 as 5 

Arborl- [ btisque co [ mee. Hor. 

7. Dactylic dimeter or Adonic — commonly used to con- 
clude a Sapphic Stanza — consists of a dactyl and spondee 5 
thus, 

Rislt A I polio. 

V. CHORIAMBIC METRE. 
In Choriambic verse, the leading foot is a choriambus, but 
in the varieties of this metre, different other feet are admit* 



298 PROSODY. METRE. § 164 

ted, chiefly at the beginning or end of the line, or both. The 
principal varieties are the following, 

1. The Choriambic 'pentameter consists of a spondee, 
three choriambi and an iambus ; as, 

Tu ne [ quaesleris | scire nefas | quern mlhi quern [ tlbi. 

2. Choriambic tetrameter, consists of three choriambi, or 
feet equivalent in length and a Bacchius ; as, 

Jane pater [ Jane tuens | dive biceps | biformis. 
Horace altered without improving this metre, by substituting a 
spondee for the iambus in the first foot ; as, 

Te deos 6- | ro Sybarin | &c. 
Note. — Choriambic tetram, was originally called PhaLaecian, from 
Phalsecus, who made great use of it. 

3. Asclepiadic tetrameter, consists of a spondee, two 
choriambi and an iambus ; thus, 

Msece- | nas atavis || edit§ re- | gibus. — Hor. 
This form is uniformly used by Horace. Other poets sometimes 
make the first foot a dactyl. 

The csesural pause occurs at the end of the first choriambus. 
This verse is sometimes scanned as a Dactylic, pentameter cata- 
lectic ; thus, 

Msece- J nas ata- | vis | edite | reglbus. 

4. Choriambic trimeter or Glyconic, consists of a spon- 
dee, (sometimes an iambus or trochee,) a choriambus and 
an iambus ; as, 

Sic te [ diva potens [ Cyprl. — Hor. 
When the first foot is a spondee, it may be scanned as dactylic 
trimeter ,• as, 

Sic te | diva po- | tens Cypri. 

5. Choriambic trimeter catalectic or Pherecratic, consists 
of a spondee, choriambus and a catalectic syllable 5 as, 

Grato I Pyrrha sub ant- ] tro 
Here also the first foot is sometimes a trochee or an iambus. When 
a spondee it may be scanned, as Dactylic trimeter, see IV. 5. 

6. Choriambic Dimeter, consists of a choriambus and a 
Bacchius 5 as, 

Lydia die | per omnes. — Hor. 

VI. IONIC METRE. 
1. The Ionic a major e, or Sotadic Metre, consists of three 
Ionics a majore, and a spondee 5 as, 

Has cum genu- | na compede | dedlcat ca- [ tenas. 
In this metre, the Ionic feet are often two trochees, as in the third 
foot of the preceding line ,• and a long syllable is often resolved into 
two short ones. 



§ 165-6 PROSODY. — METRE. 299 

2. The Ionic a minors, consists generally of three or four 
feet, which are all Ionics a minore ; as, 

Puer ales | tibl tells | operosse- | que Minervse. Hor. 



§ 165. COMPOUND METRES. 

A compound metre or Asynartete, is the union of two 
kinds of metre in the same verse or line. Of these the fol- 
lowing are the chief. 

I, Greater Alcaic. Iambic Mon. hyper + Chor. dim. Acat. 



Thus, ~ - 

2. Lesser Alcaic. Dactylic dim + Trochaic Mon. 

Thus, — s^ w | — w w || _ w — w 

3. Archilochian Hept. or Dact. tetr . a priore +Troch. Dim. B. C. 



Thus, — w > 
4. Dactylico- Iambic. Dactylic trim Cat. -f- Iambic dim. 



Thus, — w ^ I — w > 

5. lambico Dactylic. Iambic dim + Dactylic trim. Cat. 



Thus, ^ — |^~ .|w— | ^ — - [I — ^ ^ | — ww| — 



§ 166 SCANNING. 

Scanning is the measuring of verse, or the resolving of a line into 
the several feet of which it is composed. 

To do this properly, a previous acquaintance with the rules of 
quantity, and the structure of each kind of verse, is indispensable, — 
and also with the various ways by which syllables in certain situations 
are varied by contraction, elision, &c. These are usually called Fi- 
gures of Prosody, and are as follows: 

FIGURES OF PROSODY. 
1. Synaloepha, cuts of a vowel or dipthong from the end 
of a word, when the next word begins with a vowel, or h 
with a vowel following it, thus converting two syllables in- 
to one 5 as, 

Terra antlqua by Synaloepha, Urr antiqua; Dardanidce infensi, Dar- 
danid' infensi; vento hue, venV uc; thus; 

Quidve moror ? si omnes uno ordine habetis Achivos. Virg. 



300 PROSODY. — METRE. § 166 

Scanned thus, 
Quldvemo- | ror ? s' om | nes u- | n' or din' ha- | betis A- | chivos. 

The Synaloepha is sometimes neglected, and seldom takes place in 
the interjections 0, heu, ah, proh, vce, vah, hei. 

Long vowels and diphthongs, when not cut off, are sometimes short- 
ened,- as, 

Insulse | Ioni' | in mag- | no quas | dira Ce- | lseno. Virg. 
Credlmus | an qui a- | miint ip- | si sibl | somnia | f Ingunt. Id. 

2. Echthlipsis cuts off m with a vowel preceding it, from 
the end of a word, when the next word begins with a vowel, 
or h followed by a vowel ; as, 

Monstrum horrendum, informe, ingens cui lumen ademptum. 

Scanned thus, 

Monstr' hor- | rend/ in - | form' in- | gens cui | lumen ad | emptum 

This elision was sometimes omitted by the early poets; as, 
Corporum | offici- | um est quoni- | ampreme- | re omnia | decorum. 
Lucr. 

3. A Synaloepha and Ecthlipsis are sometimes found at the end of 
a line, where, after the completing of the metre, a syllable remains 
to be joined to the next line, which of course, must begin with a vow- 
el: thus, 

Sternitur | infe- | lix ali- | one | vulnere | coelum || que. 
Adspicit, &c. 
Here the que and adspicit are joined; as, qv? adspicit. 
Jamque iter [ emen- | si, tur- | res ac | tecta La- | tino- j| rum 
Ardua, &c. where the -rwmand ardua are joined; as, r J ardua. 

3. Sy?iceresis, sometimes called Crasis, contracts two syl- 
lables into one; as, Phcethon for Phaethon this is done by 
forming two vowels into a diphthong; as ac, e'i, o'i, into ce, ei, 
oi; or pronouncing the two syllables as one ; thus, ea, iu, as 
if ya, yu, &c ; as, aurea, awry a; filius,filyus; and ua, ui, &c. 
as if iva, wi; thus, genua, genwa; tenuis, tenwis. 

4. Diaresis divides one syllable into two ; as aula'i, for 
aula; Tro'im for Trojan; Perseus, for Perseus; mililus, for 
milvus; solilii, for solvit; xolilit, for volvit; aqilce, siietus, 
suasit, Stievos, relangilit, reliqilas, for aqua, suetus, &c. as, 

Aulai in medio libabant pocula Bacchi. Virg. 
Stamina non ulli dissoliienda Deo. Pentam. Tibullus. 

5. Systole makes a long syllable short ; as, the penult in 
tulerunt; thus, 

Matri [ longa de- | cem tule- | rant fas- | tidia | menses. Virg. 



§ 167-8 PROSODY. METRE. 301 

Diastole makes a short syllable long , as the last syllable 
of amor in the following verse : ® 

Consi- I dant, si- [ tantus a- | mor, et | moenia | condant. Virg. 



§ 167. STANZA. 

A poem may consist of one or more kinds of verse. "When a poem 
consists of one kind of verse it is called monocolon ,of two dicolon, of 
three, tricolon. 

The different kinds of verse in a poem are usually combined in 
regular portions called stanzas, or strophes, each of which contains 
the same number of lines, the same kinds of verse, and these ar- 
ranged in the same order. 

When a stanza or strophe consists cf two lines, the poem is called 
distrophon, of three lines tristrophon, of four tetrastrophon. Hence 
poems, according to the number of kinds of verse they contain, and 
the number of lines in the stanza are characterized as follows ) 

Monocolon, one kind of verse in the poem. 

Dicolon distrophon, two kinds of verse, and twolines in the stanza. 

Dicolon tristrophon, two kinds of verse, three lines in the stanza. 

Dicolon tetrastrophon , two kinds of verse, four lines in the stanza. 

Tricolon tristrophon, three kinds of verse, three lines in the stanza. 

Tricolon tetrastrophon, three kinds of verse, four lines in the stanza. 



§ 168. COMBINATIONS ON METRES IN HORACE. 

Horace makes use of nineteen different species of metre combined 
in eighteen different ways. They are arranged as follows; accord- 
ing to the order of preference given them by the poet. The refer- 
ences here, where not marked, are to § 164. 
No. 1. Two lines Greater Alcaic. § 165. 1. One Archolichian di- 
meter hypermeter, I. 2. 5. 3d ; and one Lesser Alcaic. 
§ 165. 2. 

No. 2. Three lines Sapphic, II. 2. One Adonic or Dactylic dim. 

IV. 7. 
No. 3. One line Choriambic trim, or Gtyconic, V, 4. One choriam- 

bic tetram. or Asclepiadic V. 3. 
No. 4. One line Iambic trim, or Senarian, I, 3. 5. 1st. One Iambic 

dim. I. 2. 3. 
No. 5. Three lines, Chor. tetram. or Asclepiadic, V. 3. One 

Chor. trim, or Glyconic, V. 4. 
No. 6. Twolines Chor. tetram, or Asclepiadic, V. 3. One Chor. 

trim, or Glyconic. V. 4. 
No. 7. Choriambic tetrameter, or Asclepiadic alone, V. 3. 
No. 8. One line Dactylic Hexameter, IV. 1. One Dactylic tetram. 

a posteriore, IV. 4. 2d. 
No. 9. Choriambic Pentameter only, V. 1. 

26 



302 



PROSODY. METRE. 



§169 



No. 10. One lme Dactylic Hexameter, IV. 1. One Iambic dim. 
I. 2. 3. 

No. 11. Iambic trimeter Senarian only, I. 2. 5. 1st. 

No. 12. One line Choriambic dim. V. 6. One Chor. tetram, (alter- 
ed,) V. 2. 

No. 13. One line Dactylic Hexameter, IV. 1. One Iambic trim, 
sen. I. 3. 5. 1st. 

No. 14. One line Dactylic Hexameter, IV. 1. One Archilochian 
Dactylic trimeter Catalectic, IV. 6. 

No. 15. One line Dactylic Hexameter, IV. 1. One Iambico Dacty- 
lic § 165. 4. 

No. 16. One line Iambic trim. Senarian, I. 3. 5. 1st. One Dac- 
tylic Iambic. 165. 4. 

No. 17. One line Archilochian Heptameter. § 165. 3. One Ar- 
chilochian Iambic trimeter, Catalectic, I. 2, 5, 2d. 

No. 18. Ionic a minor e only, VI. 2. The first line contains three 
feet, the second four. 

Note. — The satires and epistles are in Dactylic Hexameter, as in 
IV. 1. 



$ 169. METRICAL KEY TO ODES OF HORACE. 

Containing in alphabetic order the the first words of each, with a 
reference to the Nos. in the preceding section where the stanza is 

described, and reference made to the place where each metre is ex- 
plained 

Et thure et fidibus No. 3 

Exegi mon amentum 7 

Extremum Tanaim „ . . . 5 

Faune nymph arum 2 

Festo quid potius die 3 

Herculis ritu 2 

Horrida tempestas 15 

Ibis Liburnis 4 

Icci beatis 1 

Ille et nefasto 1 

Impios parrae 2 

Inclusam Danaen 5 

Intactis opulentior 3 

Integur vitae 2 

Interred ssa Venus diu 3 

Jam jam efficaci 11 

Jam pauca aratro 1 

Jam satis terris 2 

Jam veris comites 5 

Justum et tenacem 1 

Laudabunt alii 8 

Lupis et agnis 4 

Lydia die per omnes 12 



iEli vetusto No. 1 

JEquam memento 1 

Albi ne doleas 5 

Altera jam teritur 13 

Angustam amici 1 

At O deorum 4 

Audivere Lyce 6 

Bacchum in remotis 1 

Beatus ille 4 

Coelo supinas 1 

Coelo tonantem 1 

Cum tu Lydia 3 

Cur me querelis 1 

Delicta majorum 1 

Descende ccelo. 1 

Dianam tenerse 6 

DifFugere nives 14 

Dive quern proles 2 

Divis orte bonis 5 

Donarem pateras 7 

Donee gratus eram 3 

Eheu fugaces 1 

Est mini nonum 2 



§169 



PROSODY. METRE. 



303 



Maecenas atavis No. 7 

Mala soluta 4 

Martiis coelebs 2 

Mater sseva Cupid inum 3 

Mercuri facunde. 2 

Mer curi nam te 2 

Miserarum est 18 

Mollis inertia 10 

Monti urn custos 2 

Motum ex Metello 1 

Musis amicus 1 

Natis in usum 1 

JNTe forte credas 1 

Ne sit ancillse 2 

Nolis longa ferse 5 

Nondum subacta „ • » » » . 1 

Non ebur neque aureum 3 

Non semper imbres 1 

Non usitata 1 

Non vides quanto 2 

Nox erat 10 

Nullam Yare sacra 9 

Nullus argento 2 

Nunc est bibendum. 1 

O crudelis adhuc 9 

O Diva gratum 1 

O fons Blandusiae 6 

O matre pulchra. 1 

O nata mecum 1 

O navis referent 6 

O ssepe mecum ............. 1 

Venus regina 2 

Odi profanum 1 

Otium Divos 2 

Parcius junctas 2 

Parcus Deorum 1 

Parentis olim 4 

Pastor quum traheret 5 



Persicos odi puer No. 2 

Petti nihil me 16 

Phoebe, silvar unique 2 

Phoebus volentem 1 

Pindarum quisquis 2 

Poscimur siquid 2 

Quse cura patrum 1 

Qualem ministrum 1 

Quando repostum 4 

Quantum distet ab Inacho. ... 3 

Quern tu Melpomene 3 

Quern virum aut heroa ....... 2 

Quid bellicosus 1 

Quid dedicatum 1 

Quid fles Asterie 6 

Quid immerentes 4 

Quid obseratis J 1 

Quid tibi vis 8 

Quis desidero 5 

Quis multa gracilis 6 

Quo me Bacche 3 

Quo, quo scelesti ruitis 4 

Rectius vives 2 

Rogare longo 4 

Scriberis Vario 5 

Septimi Gades 2 

Sic te Diva potens 3 

Solvitur acris hiems 17 

Te maris et terrse 8 

Tu ne qneesieris 9 

Tyrrhena regum 1 

Ulla si juris 2 

Uxor pauperis Ibyci 3 

Velox amoenum 1 

Vides ut alta 1 

Vile potabis 2 

Vitas hinnuleo *«,«* 6 

Vixi choreis 1 



THE END. 



Bullions' Series of Grammars. 

GREEI, LATIN. AND ENGLISH, ON THE SAME PLAN. 

The object in preparing and publishing this series of Grammars, is two fold— 
1st, To condense and arrange in a plain and simple form, as a text book for the 
use of schools, all that is important in the best and latest works on these sub- 
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range the leading parts in all these in the same order, — to express the same 
things in the same language, so that the study of one Grammar may be render- 
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and difficulty unnecessarily occasioned by the study of elementary works, dil- 
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By adopting this plan, much time and labor will be saved, both to the teacher 
and pupil — the analogy of the different languages constantly kept in view, and 
it will be seen at once wherein they agree, and wherein they differ. 

The following statements, respecting the English and the £freek Grammars ; 
from persons eminent for their learning, and devotion to the cause of education, 
may afford some guarantee to the public for the character of these works. 

We have examined the second edition of Dr. Bullions' Greek Grammar, and 
consider it, upon the whole, the best Grammar of the Greek language with 
which we are acquainted. The parts to be committed to memory, are both con- 
cise and comprehensive : the illustrations are full without prolixity, and the 
arrangement natural and judicious. The present edition is considerably re- 
ducediii size from the former, without, at all impairing its value. 

It discovers in its compilation much labor and research as well as sound 
judgment. We are persuaded that the general use of it in our Gramrnai schools 
and academies would facilitate the acquisition of a thorough knowledge of the 
language. Judicious teachers, pursuing the plan marked out by the author in 
his preface, would usually conduct their pupils to a competent knowledge of 
the language in a less time by several months, than by the systems formerly in 
use. We therefore give it it our cordial recommendation. 

ELIPIIALET NOTT, 
R. PROUDFIT, 
Union College, December 19, 1S40. ALONZO POTTER. 

With pleasure we hail the second edition of this valuable work. Such 

emendations have been made in the present edition, that we have no hesi- 
tation in pronouncing it, in our opinion, the most complete and useful Greek 
Grammar that is to be found in the English Language. — New- York Observer. 

[From the Princeton Review, for Jan. 1341.] 
It is with pleasure we welcome a second edition of this manual, which we 
continue to regard as still unsurpassed by any similar work in our language. 
The typography and the quality of the paper are uncommonly good. We ob- 
serve valuable additions and alterations. For all that we can see, e^ery thing 
worth knowing in Thiersch, is here condensed into a few pages. AVe have cer 
tainly never seen the anatomy of the Greek verb so neatly demonstrated. Most 
heartily do we agree with the learned author in -his old-fashioned declaration, 
that "no system" of Grammar will answer a good purpose which does not pre- 
sent the leading facts and principles in such a way, as to be easily committed 
to memory, and so to be ready for immediate application when necessary."' 
To learners beginning this language, and especially to teachers of Grammar 
schools, we earnestly recommend this book. 

THE PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, &c. 
* - * * * This book contains no new nomenclature, no 

innovations in lamguage, no startling paradoxes, no short cuts to literature. 
Though simple, plain, and short, it is such a book as none but a scholar could 
produce. The circulation of a hundred thousand copies, would do wonders in 
correcting our National tendency towards a corrupt dialect and idiom; a ten- 
dency from which no district is free, yet which many among us seem resolved to 
strengthen, rather than destroy. 



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